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THE TRUE – A CONTRADICTORY QUEST PRESENT IN CAT ON HOT TIN ROOF AND IN PROSPECTIVE IMMIGRANTS PLEASE NOTE

Daniela Oliveira Lopes
Graduanda do Curso de Letras - Unipampa/Bagé


Many people prefer to live in a state of conformism in relation to their lives and not question about the things that bother them. That happens because the truth sometimes can be hard to be bore. Even though, we can assume that there are the ones who seek the true in order to find answers that can satisfy themselves. However, it is possible to say that there are individuals that present a contradictory behavior in relation to the truth that leads them to avoid and quest it. This kind of attitude can be found in literature. Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, written by Tennessee Williams and the poem Prospective Immigrants Please Note, written by Adrienne Rich, are examples of literary works in which a conflicting quest for truth can be observed.

On both of these texts the desire to know the truth is accompanied by a contradictory feeling of not finding it out. On William’s play, this fact can be seen in the character Maggie, who is married to Brick. As the author shows, their relationship is disturbed by a possible homosexual affair that happened in the past between Brick, Maggie’s husband, and Skipper, his death close friend. As a result of the doubt that she has in relation to the veracity of this possibility, she seeks the truth about her husband’s homosexuality in a contradictory way. This contradiction is shown through the behavior that she adopts in order to discover the truth. That is because, at the same time that she wants to know what the truth is, she seems to fear it because this reality would put her in contact with a reality that she was not willing to learn. On Rich’s poem, this quest for the truth is also characterized by contradiction. This feeling can be observed by the doubt that the lyric I expresses when he/she wonders if he/she should or not pass through a door. In this sense, we can understand this door as a symbol that represents the boundary that separates the comfortable situation of ignoring the truth and the difficulties that facing it may bring.

On Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, the unrevealed truth about Brick’s possible homosexual experience with Skipper is an issue that disturbs Maggie and directly affects her relationship with her husband. For that reason, she is constantly reminding Brick about Skipper:

Why I remember when we double-dated at college, Gladys Fitgerald and I and you and Skipper, it was more like a date between you and Skipper. Gladys and I were just short of tagging along as if was necessary to chaperone you! – to make a good public impression.(41)

This attitude can be seen as a way that Maggie found to force Brick to talk about his dead friend. In this sense, this insistence in mentioning him in her talks can be considered an attempt to make Brick reveal the truth about what was behind his relationship with Skipper. That is because by bringing his name to scene; Maggie could listen to Brick’s replies to her comments, in which she could find traces of what she wanted to know. In this fashion, it is possible to say that this strategy adopted by Maggie aims at having evidences that would lead her to the facts that she wanted to know.

Filled with this desire of knowing the truth Maggie constantly tries to instigate Brick to tell her what happened between Skipper and him. Nevertheless, this desire is accompanied of a fear of discovering this truth. That is because what she was looking for did not correspond to the information that she wanted to listen. As a consequence of this confusing feeling, Maggie is never direct in her questionings in relation to her husband’s homosexually. An example of that is when she puts her married wife position on the same level as her husband’s possible love affair: “Skipper is dead! I’m alive! Maggie the cat is alive” (43). In this moment it is possible to say that Maggie assumes that Skipper is the reason that is preventing her husband to notice her and to desire her as a husband would normally do. However, she does not say it directly. On the contrary, she says in a general way. Based on this fact, we can say that at the same time that Maggie instigates Brick in order to make him give a sign to her that would clear her doubts; she is not able to go straight to the point. This attitude happens due to the fact that at the bottom she does not really wanted to know the truth about what had gone on between her husband and Skipper.

Besides mentioning Skipper in order to give Brick opportunities to reveal the truth, Maggie also uses her power of feminine seduction in order to have some attention from her husband:

Other men still want me. My face looks strained, sometimes, but I’ve kept my figure as well as you’ve kept yours, and men admire it. I still turn heads on the street. (34)

This desire for attention is a result of the constant rejection that Maggie suffers from her husband. In addition to a need of being seen as a woman, we can assume that Maggie tries to provoke the male instinct in her man. In other words, as an attractive woman, she tries to cause a possible sexual desire that Brick might have for the female gender. In this sense, it is possible to say that Maggie is trying to have a positioning of her husband in relation to the female that is there in front of him and is offering herself to him. Nonetheless, Brick does not assume a positioning in relation to his wife when she gives him opportunities to do so. He, on the contrary of Maggie’s expectations, adopts a neutral behavior in relation to her. This neutrality is characterized by the fact that he does not say that she is not attractive nor says the opposite. In other words, Brick has a impartial position in relation to what he feels about his wife. This impartiality enhances the uncertainty that Maggie has in relation to his real feelings toward the opposite gender.

This neutral behavior adopted by Brick in relation to the attempts of his wife to discover the truth is not the only attitude that suggests the idea of his homosexuality on the play. That is because this reality in shown throughout Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in several ways. Nonetheless, we can state that this fact is never clearly shown on the William’s work. Instead of showing evidences of this potential truth, he prefers to show a doubtful behavior of Brick. In this line, Alan Sinfield (1994) affirms that “latent homosexuality is the question around Brick and Skipper in William’s Cat on a Hot Tin Roof” (45). This latency is presented through the inkling that shows a strong tendency for homosexuality on Brick’s attitudes. This tendency is latent on the play, that is, all the facts that lead us to believe on that true can be seen on it. These facts are shown through the description of Brick and Skipper’s close friendship that raise the question of latent homosexuality. Through these latent signals, the reader or the audience (when the play is performed) has the opportunity to choose the truth that they want to believe based on these attitudes. This possibility of drawing conclusions in relation to Brick’s possible homosexuality is doable because on the play there is this space that can be used by the public or readers to make inference in relation to his sexual past experiences. Nevertheless, the situations shown on the play can be considered a way of showing a hidden homosexuality.

In this sense, we can say that these situations corroborate with the idea of latent homosexuality. This latency is shown through traces that give us the idea that Brick might be queer (as the term adopted by Sinfield). One of the traces given on the play in relation to this homosexuality is the fact that Brick does not maintain sexual intercourses with Maggie, his wife. On the passage below she expresses her feelings concerning this situation:

If I thought you would never, never, never make love to me again – I would go downstairs to the kitchen and pick out the longest and sharpest knife I could find and stick it straight into my heart, I swear that I would! But one thing I don’t have is this charm of defeated, my hat is still in the ring, and I am determines to win! (19)

As this passage indicates Maggie is not willing to give up her marriage and is trying to have her role of a wife played in its full form. As we can see she has a hope that her husband will want her as a woman again. However, seduce him can be considered an arduous task, as she is a woman who is married to a potential homosexual man. As a consequence, this man does not give her any response in relation to her attempts of having her wishes fulfilled.

Besides this avoidance of sex with his wife, another aspect that suggests Brick’s homosexuality, as the true sexuality in his desire is the way in which he describes his relationship with Skipper: “Normal? No! – It was too rare to be normal, any true thing between two people is too rare to be normal” (94). In relation to these lines, we can say that this description is another hint given on the play concerning this “not normal” relationship between Brick and Skipper. This expression, suggests a lot of hidden meanings. It is possible to say that, because homosexuality used to be seen as something unacceptable and consequently “not normal”. In this sense, Sinfield (1994) highlights that this is another provocation made by William on the play (45) in relation to Brick’s homosexuality.

This traces that make the reader believe as true the fact that Brick was really homosexual is increased by closeness that he had with Skipper, which is shown in his words:

Oh, once in a while he put his hand on my shoulder and I’d put mine on his, oh, maybe even, when we were touring the country in pro-football an’ shared hotel rooms we’d reach across the space between the two beds and shake hands to say good night, yeah, one or two times we – (94)

As this passage indicates, there are traces of Brick’s possible homosexuality in his speech when he talks about Skipper to his father. As we can notice, the sentence is incomplete, that is, Brick does not conclude what he was going to say. This blank on his speech is the space that we, readers, have to take our own conclusion concerning Brick and Skipper’s relationship. In other words, we can say that the things that they did together are not shown in a clear way, which gives us the possibility to bridge this gap. Based on all these uncertain traces in relation to Brick’s homosexuality given on the play, Maggie is not able to have an answer for her quest for the truth. However, this is not an entirely negative situation, because as long as she does not know the truth, she will continue to live in a situation of hope in relation to Brick’s heterosexuality. Nonetheless, as soon as she finds out what she is looking for she will have to face an undesired reality. Because of that, her quest for the truth is done in a contradictory way. In order words, she wants to find out the true, but at the same time, she is afraid of what may come after the fulfillment of her wish.

This same confusing quest for the truth seen in the play analyzed above is shown on the poem Prospective Immigrants Please Note. This poem expresses an idea of indecision in relation to a certain attitude that can or not be taken. This idea is expressed by the presence of a door, which can be seen as the passage for discovering something unknown. We can see that there is the option of discovering the truth or keep denying it. The following verses show this possibility of choice:

Either you will
Go through this door
Or you will not go through


As the poem continues, the Lyric I assumes that there would be risks to pass through this door:

If you go through
There is always the risk
Of remembering your name.

These risks can be seen as the discomfort that truth can bring to the ones that discover it. That is because this so much desired truth can be associated with unpleasant things. In this sense, people usually do not want to be exposed to it because sometimes it can be too cruel. Moreover living in lies seems to be easier. That is because we can choose on what we want to believe. Truth, on the contrary has only one side, and if it is faced becomes part of life, that is, it is constantly remembered.

It is possible to say that the quest for the truth can be accompanied by many doubts. This uncertainty is a consequence of the fear that people feel when they have contact with what is unknown. The presence of doubts in this quest can be read on the third stanza “Things look at you doubly” (v. VII). In this sense, we can assume that the quest for the truth can be considered an attitude that touch many internal fears that are intrinsic to human beings. Although there is this fear in relation to the truth, the search for it is a necessary task in our lives. The lyric I, in this sense, points out that “we must look back, and let them happen.(v. VIII and IX)

Although the lyric I suggests that the truth must be known, it also understands the fact that not searching for it can be a more comfortable option:

If you do not go through
It is possible
To live worthily

This life that is worthy living does not have the conflicts that the truth can bring. On the end of the poem the lyric I remind us that the truth makes no promises. That means that we can not assume that it will be better than a reality based on falsehood.

In this sense, we can understand Maggie and the lyric I’s attitude in relation to questing the truth. Their cautious behavior is a consequence of their fear in relation to finding out something that will not correspond to their wishes. In this sense, we can say that this fear make them adopt a very contradictory behavior. This contradiction is shown through the conflicting way they deal with the possibility of discovering the truth and suffer with a not pleasant reality.

Appendix:

Prospective Immigrants Please Note

Either you will
Go through this door
Or you will not go through

If you go through
There is always the risk
Of remembering your name.

Things look at you doubly
And you must look back
And let them happen.

If you do not go through
It is possible
To live worthily

To maintain your attitudes
To hold your position
To die bravely

But much will blind you,
Much will evade you,
At what cost who knows?

The door itself
Makes no promises.
It is only a door

Reference:

Rich, Adrienne. Adrienne Rich’s Poetry and Prose: Poems, Prose and Reviews and Criticism. New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company. 1993.
Sinfield, Alan. Cultural Politics – Queer reading. University of Pensilvanis Press. London. 1994 .

O TRAUMA NARRADO NA OBRA OS CUS DE JUDAS:
A LITERATURA A SERVIÇO DO TESTEMUNHO


The narrated trauma in Os cus de Judas:
The literature serving the testimony


Rafael Nunes Ferreira -
Graduando do Curso de Letras – Português, Inglês e respectivas licenciaturas
Universidade Federal do Pampa – Unipampa/Campus Bagé


RESUMO

No presente artigo, pretendemos analisar a narrativa Os cus de Judas (1979), cuja temática refere-se à experiência-limite vivenciada pelo escritor António Lobo Antunes (1942) durante sua passagem por Angola, servindo ao exercito de Portugal, durante os enfrentamentos bélicos denominados guerras coloniais portuguesas, ocorridos entre os anos de 1961 a 1974 em três frentes: Angola, Guiné-Bissau e Moçambique. Lobo Antunes, que estivera cerca de vinte e sete meses em Angola, atuando como médico – experiência que acabaria por marcar densa e profundamente toda sua obra literária –, ao renunciar o estatuto do silêncio, criou um testemunho voraz acerca da sua experimentação da guerra em África. Para tanto, o autor utiliza-se de um narrador-personagem que, por meio de reminiscências puerícias e meditações sobre a condição em que se encontra, narra, de forma fragmentada, os anos de temor e angústia inumanos que carrega na memória. Para a análise da obra antuniana, buscamos suporte em autores como Márcio Seligmann-Silva, Beatriz Sarlo, Rui de Azevedo Teixeira, entre outros, cujos estudos abordam aspectos como memória, testemunho, trauma, tempo passado, guerra colonial, etc.

Palavras-chave: Experiência-limite, memória, testemunho, representação.



1. INTRODUÇÃO


Nas últimas décadas, os estudos literários vêm apontando que o testemunho é um elemento recorrente na produção artístico-literária, sobretudo, naquelas obras que tematizam eventos catastróficos. A respeito disso, Márcio Seligmann-Silva observa que “é evidente que qualquer fato histórico mais intenso... [...] permite – e exige! – o registro testemunhal tanto no sentido jurídico quanto no sentido de ‘sobrevivente’” (SELIGMANN-SILVA, 2003, p. 09). Seligmann-Silva trata de aspectos que envolvem a chamada literatura de testemunho, uma literatura tecida pela narração de episódios traumáticos, como, por exemplo, o assassinato em massa praticado pelos nazistas durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial.

Todavia, a tese do presente exame não é determinar a que espécie de literatura a narrativa ora analisada pertence; mas, antes de tudo, dispor da coletânea crítico-analítica que, nos últimos anos, procura desenvolver um olhar reflexivo sobre questões relacionadas a narrativas cuja temática é a experiência de guerra. Em outras palavras, se há uma literatura que testemunha a memória do trauma – e que merece a devida atenção crítica e teórica –, qual é o lugar da literatura portuguesa pós-guerras coloniais, cujo valor literário e teor testemunhal são indiscutíveis? Destarte, memória, experiência, trauma e narração são conceitos-chave para os estudos literários acerca da presença do testemunho na literatura, principalmente, em se tratando da produção artística concebida no século XX: a “era das catástrofes”, nas palavras de Seligmann-Silva.

Para o pensamento freudiano (apud Seligmann-Silva, 2003, p.48), a experiência traumática não pode ser assimilada em sua totalidade no momento em que ocorre. Por isso, há um constante retorno, alucinatório, por parte da vítima à cena traumática. Ou seja, a história do trauma é a história de um abalo violento. Exemplos de eventos-limite podem se guerras, extermínios, acidentes, entre outros. Nesta esteira, podemos afirmar que o século XX revelou-se um tempo sui generis para o surgimento de narrativas escritas por sobreviventes, haja vista a vasta incidência de guerras, perseguições e genocídios que marcaram sua passagem, as quais revelam um conflito com o vivido, com o passado.

O tempo passado é sempre conflitante. Referem-se a ele, em concorrência, segundo afirma Beatriz Sarlo, “a memória e a história, porque nem sempre a história consegue acreditar na memória, e a memória desconfia de uma reconstituição que não coloque em seu centro os direitos da lembrança...” (SARLO, 2007, p.09). Do ponto de vista daquele que sobrevive a um evento-limite, a historiografia desempenha um papel limitado e não dá conta da sua experiência, pois se história do trauma é a de um choque intenso, é, ainda, a do “desencontro com o real” (SELIGMANN-SILVA, 2003, p.49). Portanto, em decorrência da incapacidade de dar forma ao vivido, reiteramos, advém a constante repetição e volta à cena do trauma.

O ato de narrar a experiência traumática funde-se na presença real do enunciador na cena traumática. João Camillo Penna afirma que “o testemunho fala e narra o nosso encontro com o ‘Real’ do trauma” (PENNA, 2003, p.345). Em outras palavras, ao externar uma lembrança, o sujeito-narrador fala de algo particular que se quer legítimo pela presença ativa no acontecimento em questão. Nesse sentido, passado e presente são indissociáveis, visto que a memória é o elo que os une, atuando sobre um e outro. Para Sarlo,

...não há testemunho sem experiência, mas tampouco há experiência sem narração: a linguagem liberta o aspecto mudo da experiência, redime-a de seu imediatismo ou de seu esquecimento e a transforma no comunicável, isto é, no comum. A narração inscreve a experiência numa temporalidade que não é a de seu acontecer (ameaçado desde seu próprio começo pela passagem do tempo e pelo irrepetível), mas a de sua lembrança. A narração também funda uma temporalidade que a cada repetição e a cada variante torna a se atualizar (SARLO, 2007, p.24 e 25).

Como já foi dito, o século XX é o tempo das catástrofes por excelência. Inúmeros episódios compõem o inventário de eventos-limite ocorridos em tempos e espaços diversos. Durante as décadas de sessenta e setenta, as guerras coloniais portuguesas, que envolveram Portugal, Angola, Guiné-Bissau e Moçambique, constituem um período marcante na história bélica portuguesa e do século XX. De acordo com Rui de Azevedo Teixeira (1998), em 13 anos de guerra, foram mais de 1 milhão de soldados portugueses recrutados. Essa experiência de guerra, em Portugal, traduzira-se no surgimento de uma literatura pautada no resgate da memória e do testemunho da vivência traumática. Trata-se de uma literatura escrita por sobreviventes-testemunhas das guerras coloniais portuguesas, cujas narrativas relatam as experiências-limite vivenciadas durante a passagem pelos campos de batalha na África.


2. ÁFRICA, PORTUGAL E A GUERRA: UMA BREVE HISTÓRIA

Ao passo que as manifestações em prol da independência dos países africanos iam ganhando força, o Estado novo de António de Oliveira Salazar – no poder desde o golpe militar de 1926 –, procurava manter a mística imperial portuguesa, buscando, para tanto, reforçar as ligações entre Portugal e as colônias em África. (TEIXEIRA, 1998, p.31) Neste sentido, o regime salazarista, exercido de forma autoritária e ditatorial, e cuja base assentava-se sobre na tríplice nacionalismo-colonialismo-estatismo, passou a produziu um nível de opressão que aumentava “do centro para periferia, da metrópole para as colônias” (TEIXEIRA, 1998, p.32).

Prefaciando a guerra, as primeiras contestações africanas contra da condição colonial surgiram camufladamente por meio de reivindicações trabalhistas que foram “prontamente afogadas em sangue através de punições militares e paramilitares (TEIXEIRA, 1998, p.34). Embora a censura tenha calado os acontecimentos iniciais pró-independência e o regime de Salazar não tenha se preocupado com o iminente romper da guerrilha, a episódio ocorrido de 4 de fevereiro de 1961, em Luanda, onde um grupo de nacionalistas angolanos ataca duas cadeias e um quartel da polícia móvel portuguesa, com a finalidade de libertar ‘camaradas’ presos, simbolizou, de fato, o princípio do fim do império português na África e, historicamente, o inicio das guerras coloniais portuguesas.

Para o regime salazarista, esgotado internamente e isolado externamente, a opção pela guerra significou uma última tentativa de sobrevivência. Nas palavras de Carlos de Matos Gomes, “para existir um império era ainda necessário que a potência colonial dispusesse de força para impor o seu domínio” (GOMES, 2001, p.29). Por essa razão, no decorrer dos anos de guerra, tornou-se imprescindível o aumento progressivo da presença das tropas portuguesas mobilizadas em África, chegando ao seu ápice no início dos anos 70. Os custos para manutenção da guerra que se prolongava fugiram a todas as expectativas, comprometendo, gravemente, a economia de Portugal. Além disso, segundo Miriam Denise Kelm, “mortos e mutilados retornavam ao país, que os recebia em choque velado; nos lugares longínquos onde os combates aconteciam, as condições de vida dos aquartelados eram precaríssimas” (KELM, 2005, p.114).

Os dados trazidos na obra de Teixeira (1998) revelam o grau de envolvimento da nação lusitana durante os anos de uma guerra cuja busca da vitória se dava por meio de uma violência maciça, organizada, e que produziu grande sofrimento:

Com mais de 10.000 mortos, cerca de 20.000 deficientes físicos e ainda, possivelmente, 140.000 neuróticos de guerra, rara é a família portuguesa – salvo os ricos e os influentes do antigo regime e não pouca das mais conhecidas famílias da oposição – que não foi ferida pela Guerra Colonial. (TEIXEIRA, 1998, p.88)

Para o soldado português recrutado, essa experiência traumática é responsável por muitas conseqüências que se estendem até hoje, sobretudo, em se tratando de três aspectos que se relacionam: “o alcoolismo, a PTSD (Perturbação Pós-Stress Traumático) e o rompimento da comunicabilidade/integração, tanto no plano coletivo quanto no pessoal.” (KELM, 2005, p.139) Somados a isto, um sentimento de que a experiência vivenciada é algo incomunicável.

Após longos anos da experimentação da guerra, portanto, a derrota portuguesa representou o fim definitivo da odisséia imperial lusitana e o definitivo “regresso das caravelas” (TEIXEIRA, 1998, p.29). Para o soldado que embarcou para a guerra, a experiência em terras africanas representa um acontecimento ímpar em sua existência. Vivendo em um cenário de pesadelo e de beleza, ele prestou, em média, dois anos e meio de comissão, tendo que suportar “o isolamento e o sentimento de abandono, a tensão nervosa, o cansaço psicológico, a saturação, o mau abastecimento...” (TEIXEIRA, 1998, p.46)


3. MEMÓRIA E NARRAÇÃO N’OS CUS DE JUDAS

António Lobo Antunes (1942) iniciou sua carreira militar a 06 de janeiro de 1970. Já no ano seguinte, embarcou para Angola para viver aquilo que, segundo ele próprio afirma, representa a “experiência mais dolorosa” da sua vida. Em Angola, Lobo Antunes atuou como médico junto ao exército português. Após concluir sua passagem, o escritor retornou a Portugal em março de 1973, trazendo na bagagem uma experiência viria marcar profundamente sua vida e obra. Mesmo tendo iniciado suas atividades como médico psiquiatra, em 1976, Lobo Antunes começa a escrita do primeiro trabalho literário, Memória de elefante (1979), uma das obras que compõem a trilogia de guerra na qual o escritor passa em revista a experiência bélica em África.

Os cus de Judas é a narrativa mais reconhecida dentre as três que compõem a trilogia de guerra. Na obra, um narrador-personsagem rememora os vinte e sete meses que passou em Angola durante as guerras coloniais, atuando como médico do exército português. A rememoração desse sujeito, cujo nome não é revelado, ocorre em uma noite “sem fim, espessa, densa, desesperante, desprovida de refúgios e saídas, um labirinto de angústias...” (ANTUNES, 2004, p.134), na qual ele – tomado pelo álcool – vai narrando lembranças entrecortadas por resquícios da memória da infância e de Portugal, e pelo exame da condição atual à qual se encontra. Essa narração, vale lembrar, é destinada a uma interlocutora que não se manifesta em momento algum enquanto o narrador, que é, ao mesmo tempo, narrador e protagonista, procura fazer um relato que se aproxime ao máximo da experiência vivida por ele durante a guerra.

Walter Benjamin (apud Sarlo, 2007, p.25), em face aos escombros da Primeira Guerra Mundial, observou a falência do relato devido ao esgotamento da experiência que lhe dava origem. Para ele, o choque traumático teria acabado com a experiência transmissível, uma vez que os soldados voltavam mudos da guerra. Esse trauma, de fato, seria demasiado forte para “o “minúsculo, frágil corpo humano” (BENJAMIN, 1980, p.57). Na esteira do pensamento freudiano, Jeanne Marie Gagnebin afirma que o choque traumático “fere, separa, corta ao sujeito o acesso simbólico, em particular à linguagem” (GABNEBIN, 2006, p.51). Nesse aspecto, nota-se uma subtração da linguagem, isto é, sua despotencialização em face ao vivido, presente como um dos elementos mais angustiantes da rememoração:

Nunca as palavras me pareceram tão supérfluas como nesse tempo de cinza, desprovidas do sentido que me habituara a dar-lhes, privadas de peso, de timbre, de significado, de cor, à medida que trabalhava o coto descascado de um membro ou reintroduzia numa barriga os intestinos que sobravam, nunca os protestos me surgiram tão vãos... (ANTUNES, 2007, p.45 e 46).

Por outro lado, mesmo perante um real que não pode ser totalmente traduzido para o campo do simbólico – pois existe aqui uma lacuna entre a linguagem e o real –, há um imperativo que leva o sujeito a testemunhar contra a barbárie. Ao referir-se à obra É isto um homem?, de Primo Levi, cuja narração trata da sua experiência nos campos de concentração, Sarlo afirma o seguinte: “Os que não foram assassinados não podem falar plenamente do campo de concentração; falam então porque outros morreram, e em seu lugar” (SARLO, 2007, p.34). Ora, as verdadeiras testemunhas estão ausentes: pois são os mortos. Por isso, os sobreviventes testemunham no lugar delas:

Eu estava farto da guerra, Sofia, farto da obstinada maldade da guerra e de escutar, na cama, os protestos dos camaradas assassinados que me perseguiam no meu sono, pedindo-me que os não deixasse apodrecer emparedados nos seus caixões de chumbo, inquietantes e frios como os perfis das oliveiras... [...] se erguerão no interior de mim nos seus caixões de chumbo, envolto em ligaduras sangrentas que esvoaçam, exigindo-me, nos resignados lamentos dos mortos, o que por medo lhes não dei: o grito de revolta que esperavam de mim e a insubmissão contra os senhores da guerra de Lisboa... (ANTUNES, 2007, p.148 e 164)

A súplica dos mortos para que não os deixem apodrecer é esse imperativo. É, sobretudo, aceitar as “tristes palavras apodrecidas que os mortos legam aos vivos num borbulhar de sílabas informes” (ANTUNES, 2007, p. 160). Todavia, para não condená-los a cair no esquecimento é necessário uma volta a cena da barbárie; é preciso enlutar os que lá permaneceram, silenciosos. Uma tarefa agônica que envolve o constante regresso ao cenário do trauma, pois “a narração da experiência está unida ao corpo e à voz” (Sarlo, 2007, p.24):

Outro vodka? É verdade que não acabei o meu mas neste passo da minha narrativa perturbo-me invariavelmente, que quer, foi há seis anos e perturbo-me ainda: descíamos do Luso para as Terras do Fim do Mundo, em coluna, por picadas de areia, Lucusse, Luanguinga, as companhias independentes que protegiam a construção da estrada, o deserto uniforme e feio do Leste, quimbos cercados de arame farpado em torno dos pré-fabricados dos quartéis, o silêncio do cemitério dos refeitórios, casernas de zinco a apodrecer devagar, descíamos para as Terras do Fim do Mundo, a dois mil quilómetros de Luanda, Janeiro acabava, chovia, e íamos morrer, ao lado do condutor, de boné nos olhos, o vibrar de um cigarro infinito na mão, iniciei a dolorosa aprendizagem da agonia. (ANTUNES, 2004, p.36)

Simultaneamente há, por parte do sobrevivente, uma angústia em se livrar do terrível fardo da memória, pois como afirma Aharon Appelfeld, “o testemunho do sobrevivente é, antes de mais nada, a busca de um alívio” (APPELFELD, 1988, p.84). Esse sujeito que sobrevive, por sua vez, está preso a um local onde convergem o passado e o presente, o que resulta em uma inadaptação, visto que a reconstrução de um e de outro é sempre problemática. De certo, esse local de constante desconforto é o próprio presente, pois como afirma Sarlo “o tempo próprio da lembrança é o presente: isto é, o único tempo apropriado para lembrar e, também, o tempo que a lembrança se apodera, tornando-o próprio” (Sarlo, 2007, p.10). Ou seja, não é a experiência vivida que atormenta; mas, de fato, a lembrança traumática – dos mortos! – que se apodera fixamente do presente:

Era tudo mentira e acordei, e todavia, entende, em noites como esta, em que o álcool me acentua o abandono e a solidão e me acho no fundo de um poço interior demasiado alto, demasiado estreito, demasiado liso, surge dentro de mim, tão nítida como há oito anos, a lembrança da covardia e do comodismo que cuidava afogados para sempre numa qualquer gaveta perdida da memória, e uma espécie de, como exprimir-me?, remorso, leva-me a acocorar-me num ângulo do meu quarto como um bicho acossado, branco de vergonha e de pavor, aguardando, de joelhos na boca, a manhã que não chega. (ANTUNES, 2004, p.133)


4. À GUISA DE CONCLUSÃO


De certo, é patente a relação intrínseca da obra Os cus de Judas com a experiência-limite vivida pelo escritor Lobo Antunes, entre 1971 e 1973 – período em que atuou como médico no exército de Portugal em Angola –, do mesmo modo que é inegável o fato de que as guerras coloniais tenham sido um evento assaz violento para os soldados portugueses mandados para o combate, aspecto que, como sabemos, vem sendo exposto em congressos, encontros, pesquisas, arquivos oficiais, dissertações, teses, publicações variadas, etc. Portanto, iluminados pelo pensamento de Seligmann-Silva, o qual nos diz que todo evento histórico intenso permite e exige um testemunho, devemos olhar atentamente para as narrativas portuguesas pós-guerras coloniais, visto que representam um acervo de valor literário e testemunhal caríssimo aos estudos que procuram estabelecer uma nova abordagem da produção artística e literária, em especial, daquela produzida no último século.

Vale lembrar que a atitude empreendida no exame da obra antuniana vem ao encontro das tentativas de se evitar concepções redutoras, as quais excluem exemplos singulares que, como observa Anselmo Peres Alós, são recusados “justamente pelas singularidades, particularidades e rupturas estabelecidas em relação à definição padrão” (ALÓS, 2008, p.01). Ora, não podemos negar que a obra de Lobo Antunes carrega em seu cerne a experiência individual à qual o escritor foi submetido. Experiência que é revelada – na medida em que o real consegue ser representado pelo simbólico –, por um narrador autodiegético, que encarna ao mesmo tempo narrador e protagonista, e que, ademais, pode ser considerado um alter ego do escritor Lobo Antunes, ou seja, autor e narrador: ambos ex-combatentes em Angola que voltam da guerra para retomar as atividades de psiquiatria.

Portanto, pensar a literatura portuguesa produzida após o final da guerra é, sob esse viés, pensar os limites e as possibilidades de representação – ficcional ou não –, acerca do episódio mais expressivo ocorrido na sociedade portuguesa do século XX; e isso significa observá-lo em seus diversos níveis, incluindo históricos, psicológicos, sociais, culturais, etc., e em suas relações. Se a literatura de testemunho nasce, sobretudo, no século das perseguições, genocídios, brutalidades, entre outros, os textos críticos podem – e devem – ser disponibilizados para os estudos das diversas literaturas onde o teor testemunhal se manifesta de forma lúcida, como é o caso da literatura portuguesa escrita por ex-combatentes das guerras coloniais; significando, ainda, pensá-la, indiferente às suas singularidades que a exclui de categorizações mais radicais, mas, antes de tudo, pensá-la no que tange aos estudos acerca da literatura e do testemunho, e suas implicações para os estudos literários.


5. REFERÊNCIAS


APPELFELD, Aharon. After the Holocaust. In: LANG, B. (org.). Writing and the Holocaust. Nova Iorque, Londres: Holmes & Meier, 1988.
BENJAMIN, Walter; HORKHEIMER, Max; ADORNO, Theodor W.; HABERMAS, Jürgen; [trad.] GRÜNNEWALD, José Lino... [et al.]. Obras escolhidas. São Paulo: Abril Cultural, 1980.
GOMES, Carlos de Matos. Forças Armadas e o regime, o ovo e a serpente. In: I Congresso Internacional sobre a Guerra Colonial. Universidade de Lisboa, 2000, Lisboa. Livro de Actas. TEIXEIRA, Rui de Azevedo (Org.) A guerra colonial: realidade e ficção. Lisboa: Notícias, 2001, p.29-36.
KELM, Miriam Denise. Quando a mulher se inscreve em meio à guerra (contributos da voz autoral feminina na representação ficcional das guerras coloniais portuguesas), tese de doutorado PUC-RS, 2005.
PENNA, João Camillo. Este corpo, esta dor, esta fome: notas sobre o testemunho hispanoamericano. In: SELIGMANN-SILVA, Márcio, (org.). História, memória, literatura. Campinas, SP: Editora da Unicamp, 2003.
SARLO, Beatriz. Tempo passado: cultura da memória e guinada subjetiva. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras; Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 2007.
SELIGMANN-SILVA, Márcio. (org.) História, memória e literatura – o testemunho na era das catástrofes. Campinas, SP: Editora da Unicamp, 2003.
TEIXEIRA, Rui de Azevedo. A guerra colonial e o romance português. Agonia e catarse. Lisboa: Notícias, 1998.

THE PORTRAIT OF A DIFFERENT MAN IN HENRY JAMES’ THE PORTRAIT OF A LADY


Rafael Nunes Ferreira
Graduando do Curso de Letras - Português/Inglês e respectivas literturas
Universidade Federal do Pampa - Unipampa - Campus Bagé


Studies of gender and literature can reflect how literary texts can be written, read and interpreted by men and women in different societies in diverse periods. As a rule, we are submitted to a set of cultural stereotypes and social patterns related to genders which are originated from the Western Culture. Therefore, studies of gender and literature can help us perceive and understand human relations, the concepts of male and female, sex and sexuality and their implications in society. In this sense, some literary works are valuable due to the fact that they expose the cultural apparent inflexibility attributed to the roles played by men and women. The Portrait of a Lady by Henry James, for example, is a narrative that focuses mainly on Isabel’s story, but it also presents different portraits of men in the late nineteenth century. This work seems to show a preoccupation with questioning the role of the man as a rigid gender construct. Understanding the male role and the masculine representation in this particular narrative requires close attention, especially in his subtler performances. That is because it is possible to say that the author deals with the male role played by Ralph Touchett as diversified from the other men The Portrait of a Lady.

James amplifies the male role in Ralph’s performance in order to expose and explore masculine identity by deconstructing the male role conceived in Western Culture. In this sense, William Veeder observes that “no one in James is in fact masculine” because “everyone is effeminate” (86). To some degree I think that it is true, but I believe that not all the male character is definitively effeminate in his literary work. On the other hand, his suggestion is essential to my analysis of Ralph Touchett since I am inclined towards the idea that James presents this character as alternative portrait of man as society has known it in Western Culture so far. In other words, Ralph is, in my opinion, a male portrait which is absolutely different from Lord Warburton or Gilbert Osmond portraits, for example. In fact, Ralph is a character that does not act according to the social patterns related to the male role established by Western Culture.

James starts deconstructing male role and performance in the first chapter, when he notes three men concerned with making tea time “an eternity of pleasure […] were not of sex which is supposed to furnish the regular votaries of the ceremony” (03). They are Mr. Touchett, Lord Warburton and Ralph Touchett, who

was a person of quite a different pattern, who, although he might have excited grave curiosity, would not, like the other [Lord Warburton], have provoked you to wish yourself, almost blindly, in his place. Tall, lean, loosely and feebly put together, he had an ugly, sickly, witty, charming face, furnished, but by no means decorated, with a straggling moustache and whisker. He looked clever and ill — a combination by no means felicitous; and he wore a brown velvet jacket. He carried his hands in his pockets, and there was something in the way he did it that showed the habit was inveterate. His gait had a shambling, wandering quality; he was not very firm on his legs. (07)

As we can see, James first describes Ralph by giving the reader an idea of the personality of this character that portrays him as a different male type. He is a “person of quite another pattern” (07) who is not attractive to women.

In this sense, Ralph Touchett can be seen as an example of James’ determination of deconstructing male identity as society has known it. That is because this character plays a questioning role in the novel. Apparently, James describes him as an individual who is educated according to established patterns in Western Culture. Ralph studied at American schools and graduated from Harvard. Besides, after he has returned to England he also graduated from Oxford. Curiously, after we read some chapters it is possible to recognize that Ralph is not a simple male character. In fact, he is an ambiguous man and his ambiguity can be considered a strategy used by James to lead the reader to inquire into this personality. For that reason, at the same time that James describes Ralph as a resigned man, he states that:

His outward conformity to the manners that surrounded him was none the less the mask of a mind that greatly enjoyed its independence, on which nothing long imposed itself, and which, naturally inclined to adventure and irony, indulged in a boundless liberty of appreciation. (62)

As this passage indicates, Ralph can be understood as someone who has a non-singular identity. That is, he is a person whose identity is represented socially by a mask that covers his real self. Based on that, it is not easy to discover who he really is. So, the reader is lead to decipher who is the man behind this mask. However, it is necessary to pay close attention in order to understand Ralph’s performance. Besides, James reiterates the fact that Ralph has somewhat hidden behind his mask since the author highlights that this character is a man “whose head was full of ideas which his father had never guessed” (63).

As James portrays Ralph’s personality, we can observe that he expands the male identity attributed to this character as Ralph does not represent the masculine pattern. The young man is an ill bachelor who “had caught a violent cold, which fixed itself on his lungs and threw them into dire confusion” (64). It is a relevant fact in his life. That is because, by exploring Ralph’s physical and psychological condition, James emphasizes a lack of testosterone which identifies Ralph as man whose attitude is more intellectual than active. Moreover, it is interesting to observe that Ralph sees himself as an ineffectual man who “was too ill for aught” (65).

Due to his limited condition, Leland S. Person notes that Ralph is “relegated to a narcissistic mode of self-understanding” in which he “feels split into subject and object” (90). In fact, Ralph experienced an intense dislike since “it appeared to him that it was not himself in the least that he was taking care of, but an uninteresting and uninterested person with whom he had nothing in common” (64). According to Person, by considering this second self from the vantage point of the first, whose position is privileged in the culture dominated by male power, Ralph feels a strong disgust (90). That is because his illness does not allow him to play a male role in accordance with the Western Culture patterns. On the other hand, the narrator mentions that this second person “improved on acquaintance, and Ralph grew at last to have a certain grudging tolerance, even an undemonstrative respect, for him” (64). As we can observe, this fact corroborates the identification of Ralph with a second self that – we can affirm –, does not represent the phallic power of the Western Culture. Robert K. Martin states that “Ralph’s increasing identification with this second person – as a narcissistic self-understanding –, generates a new perspective in his life” (89). That is, a perspective in which Ralph does not have to play a role as it is established by society.

The relation with Isabel reveals another important fact related to Ralph’s identity and performance. Isabel is an interesting and beautiful young lady who becomes the object of desire of different male types, like Lord Warburton and Gilbert Osmond. Like these men, Ralph is also transformed by the encounter with Isabel, as we can see:

It was very probably this sweet-tasting property of the observed thing in itself that was mainly concerned in Ralph’s quickly-stirred interest in the advent of a young lady who was evidently not insipid. If he was consideringly disposed, something told him, here was occupation enough for a succession of days. It may be added, in summary fashion, that the imagination of loving — as distinguished from that of being loved — had still a place in his reduced sketch. He had only forbidden himself the riot of expression. However, he shouldn’t inspire his cousin with a passion, nor would she be able, even should she try, to help him to one. (67)

As this passage shows us, Ralph’s thoughts about Isabel generates a revision of the way he was living his life. Before he met Isabel, the young man was a person that used to feel that “there was really nothing he had wanted very much to do” (65). However, the desire for her makes Ralph live more intensely. Thus, he feels motivated to have a new occupation in his life.

Apparently, we could consider Ralph’s desire as a sign of his masculine sexuality. However, it is necessary to observe some particular aspects concerning the relation between Ralph and Isabel. Firstly, if we compare the relation between Isabel and Lord Warburton or Caspar Goodwood, it is possible to perceive a remarkable difference in Ralph’s attitude. That is because they wish to marry Isabel, as we can observe, for example, in a dialogue between Warburton and Isabel:

— […] ‘I don’t go off easily, but when I’m touched, it’s for life. It’s for life, Miss Archer, it’s for life’, Lord Warburton repeated in the kindest, tenderest, pleasantest voice Isabel had ever heard, and looking at her with eyes charged with the light of a passion that had sifted itself clear of the baser parts of emotion – the heat, the violence, the unreason – and that burned as steadily as a lamp in a windless place. […]
— ‘Ah, Lord Warburton, how little you know me!’ Isabel said very gently. Gently too she drew her hand away.
— ‘Don’t taunt me with that, that I don’t know you better makes me unhappy enough already; it’s all my loss. But that’s what I want, and it seems to me I’m taking the best way. If you’ll be my wife, then I shall know you, and when I tell you all the good I think of you you’ll not be able to say it’s from ignorance.’ (91)

Lord Warburton is lead by a burning desire to possess Isabel for all his life, but the same objective does not apply to Ralph. Certainly, we can not observe in Mr. Touchett’s son a sexual and physical attraction that would correspond to a male strong feeling for a woman. This fact can be seen clearly in the long dialogue between Ralph and Mr. Touchett at the moment that his father is almost dying in a bed:

— ‘Well, that’s what it comes to in the end. Don’t you like Isabel?’
— ‘Yes, very much.’ And Ralph got up from his chair and wandered over to the fire. He stood before it an instant and then he stooped and stirred it mechanically. ‘I like Isabel very much,’ he repeated. (315)

Strangely, the question made by Mr. Touchett seems to provoke a type of discomfort in Ralph, but his unexpected reaction can be seen as a sign of his lack of interest in performing his male role. Moreover, Ralph’s physical discomfort can be caused due to the fact that he should hide nothing to his father, including his disinterest of exploring his male desire. In fact, the young man prefers to protect his dubious personality even for Mr. Touchett, as we can identify in the passage below:

— ‘You are in love with her then? I should think you would be. It’s as if she came over on purpose.’
— ‘No, I’m not in love with her; but I should be if… if certain things were different.’

As we can see, although knowing that Mr. Touchett is almost dying, Ralph keeps preserving himself behind a mask of unpretension. James exposes Ralph’s performance as somewhat ambiguous. He says that he wants to care deeply for Isabel at the same time he affirms that he does not wish to marry her:

— ‘I take a great interest in my cousin,’ he said, ‘but not the sort of interest you desire. I shall not live many years; but I hope I shall live long enough to see what she does with herself. She’s entirely independent of me; I can exercise very little influence upon her life. But I should like to do something for her.’ (318)

His attitude is not aggressive like Goodwood’s attitude, the American that fights for the possibility of marrying Isabel by traveling to England to convince her to marry him. Ralph, on the other hand, satisfies himself by embodying a kind of voyeur whose consumption of beautiful objects such as Isabel can be considered his only pleasure. The “conscious observation of a lovely woman” strikes him as the “finest entertainment that the world now had to offer to him” (32). According to Person, the performance of Ralph “dramatizes another aspect of Jamesian suspense: the suspense of the male subject between desires and genders” (91). That is because Ralph is not interested in exposing a sexual or physical desire like any man probably would do it by facing a beautiful woman like Isabel, or like Goodwood or Warburton really do that.

Through a dubious role, James seems to expose a different male role which deconstructs the masculine patterns. As we can notice, Ralph satisfies himself by living a kind of voyeurism in which he can observe the relation between Isabel’s desire and other men who desire her:

— ‘You’d have liked me to make such a marriage.’
— ‘Not in the least. I’m absolutely without a wish on the subject. I don’t pretend to advise you, and I content myself with watching you- with the deepest interest.’ (258)
— ‘What I mean is that I shall have the thrill of seeing what a young lady does who won’t marry Lord Warburton.’
— ‘I shall not see all of it, but I shall probably see the most interesting years. Of course if you were to marry our friend you’d still have a career, a very decent, in fact a very brilliant one. But relatively speaking it would be a little prosaic. It would be definitely marked out in advance; it would be wanting in the unexpected. You know I’m extremely fond of the unexpected, and now that you’ve kept the game in your hands I depend on your giving us some grand example of it.’ (259-260)

As this passage indicates, Ralph wishes to appreciate Isabel passively rather than forging an intimate relationship: “I’ve been absolutely passive” (98), he admits. This attitude, we can assume, is absolutely opposite to the masculine patterns, as man is not expected to be passive in a relationship with a woman; but Ralph is passive. It is a consequence of the expansion of James makes concerning Ralph’s male role that is characterized by ambiguity. In this sense, we can say that James explores a new perspective related to genders as concepts that interact with politics, patterns and values in society.



References:

James, Henry. The Portrait of a Lady. Global Language Resources, Inc. 2001. From the website: http://www.global-language.com/
Martin, Robert K. “Failed Heterosexuality in The Portrait of a Lady” in Henry James and the Homo-Erotic Desire. New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc., 1999.
Person, Leland S. Henry James and the Suspense of the Masculinity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.


FROM SHAKESPEARE’S HAMLET TO VIRGINIA WOOLF’S SEPTIMUS W. SMITH: DEATH SEEN AS AN EXISTENCIAL EXIT

Rafael Nunes Ferreira
Graduando do Curso de Letras - Português/Inglês e respectivas literturas
Universidade Federal do Pampa - Unipampa - Campus Bagé


Death is a constant thematic in literature. In some works, it is related to a certain feeling of nonconformism or unfitness in society. This circumstance leads the literary character to death or to commit suicide. In this sense, death can be understood in two ways. Firstly, it can be seen as an exit as the individual is not able to accept and fit in the social reality. That is because he/she has a perception of reality that goes beyond the social patterns. Secondly, it can be understood as a punishment to the individuals, since the society can not deal with people who do not play a role in accordance with the established patterns. Their incapacity of following the social conventions is the crime by which they are punished. From this point of view, death in literature seems to be the resolution of a conflict between society and individual. We can observe this fact in The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of the Denmark, by William Shakespeare and in Mrs. Dalloway, by Virginia Woolf. Death can be seen as the only solution for Hamlet, the unhappy son of the dead king, and for Septimus Warren Smith, a World War I veteran who becomes insane due to the effects of the war. In both cases, it is possible to perceive a nonconformism or unfitness feeling in relation to reality.

On Hamlet, nonconformism and unfitness stem from two events that are not narrated in the beginning of the play. They correspond to death of his father, the king of Denmark, and the marriage of Hamlet’s mother Gertrude to his uncle Claudius, the brother of the dead king:

God! / How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable, / Seem to me all the uses of this world! […] But two months dead: nay, not so much, not two: / So excellent a king; that was, to this, / Hyperion to a satyr; so loving to my mother / That he might not beteem the winds of heaven / Visit her face too roughly. Heaven and earth! / Must I remember? why, she would hang on him, / As if increase of appetite had grown / By what it fed on: and yet, within a month – / Let me not think on't – Frailty, thy name is woman! – / A little month, or ere those shoes were old / With which she follow'd my poor father's body, / Like Niobe, all tears: – why she, even she – / God! a beast, that wants discourse of reason, / Would have mourn'd longer – married with my uncle, / My father's brother, but no more like my father / Than I to Hercules: within a month: / Ere yet the salt of most unrighteous tears / Had left the flushing in her galled eyes, / She married. O, most wicked speed, to post / With such dexterity to incestuous sheets! / It is not nor it cannot come to good. (30-31)

As known, the marriage of Gertrude and Claudius seems to follow the natural order in that social system as nobody, excluding Hamlet, questions this event. For the disillusioned prince, this fact reveals how people are corrupt and the society is degrading. According to Barbara Heliodora, Shakespeare’s play in particular is a “masterly investigation about the human condition in society” (66). That is because it reveals how an individual is conditioned to accept certain values and patterns established by a group or by the whole society. In Hamlet’s case the fact that the prince does not consider the marriage of his mother with his uncle an acceptable event can be considered the fount of his inadequacy. “Something is rotten in the state of Denmark” (48), as one of the officers notes.

Hamlet’s feeling of nonconformism and unfitness in relation to the events that have happened in the kingdom of Denmark is similar to Septimus Warren Smith’s feelings in relation to the English society. As we know, Septimus was a young man from a working class:

Lodging off the Euston Road, there were experiences, again experiences, such as change a face in two years from a pink innocent oval to a face lean, contracted, hostile. But of all this what could the most observant of friends have said except what a gardener says when he opens the conservatory door in the morning and finds a new blossom on his plant: — It has flowered; flowered from vanity, ambition, idealism, passion, loneliness, courage, laziness, the usual seeds, which all muddled up (in a room off the Euston Road), made him shy, and stammering, made him anxious to improve himself, made him fall in love with Miss Isabel Pole, lecturing in the Waterloo Road upon Shakespeare. (94)

In the first place, we can take for granted that Septimus used to be an idealist man. For that reason, he “was one of the first to volunteer” (95) to join up in the English armed forces in order to combat in the Great War. In this sense, Septimus embraces an attitude in accordance with what was expected by the English society:

He went to France to save an England which consisted almost entirely of Shakespeare’s plays and Miss Isabel Pole in a green dress walking in a square. There in the trenches the change which Mr. Brewer desired when he advised football was produced instantly; he developed manliness; he was promoted; he drew the attention, indeed the affection of his officer, Evans by name. (95-97)

As this passage indicates, Septimus initially uses his male condition in order to ascend socially and become an active member in society. That is because he assumed his role by accepting to join up in the army and fight for his country. However, as Ann Ronchetti claims, “he is overwhelmed by the events of his young life, which dissipate his creative focus and ultimately destroy him” (52). Septimus becomes a war veteran whose deliriums identify him as a segregated individual socially as he does not fit in the established social group.

In both stories — Hamlet and Septimus’ —, it is possible to perceive a rupture with the social order as they move towards death. As a result, they feel unconformed and unfitted in relation to reality. The prince of Denmark, in his turn, reaches an understanding about the things that goes beyond the social reality:

To be, or not to be: that is the question: / Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer / The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, / Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, / And by opposing end them? / To die: to sleep; / No more; and by a sleep to say we end / The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks / That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation / Devoutly to be wish'd. […] For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, / The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, / The pangs of despised love, the law's delay, / The insolence of office and the spurns / That patient merit of the unworthy takes, / When he himself might his quietus make / With a bare bodkin? (81)

For Hamlet, the social life becomes unbearable as soon as he acquires consciousness of its corruption and degradation. In this sense, we may affirm that Septimus shares Hamlet’s desolate vision concerning the English society. This vision increases especially after Septimus has changed his perception towards life because of his experience in the Great War. He “had fought; he was brave; he was not Septimus now” (27), his wife notes. Thus, Septimus’ perception of society does not permit that he fits into the reality:

One cannot bring children into a world like this. One cannot perpetuate suffering, or increase the breed of these lustful animals, who have no lasting emotions, but only whims and vanities, eddying them now this way, now that. […] For the truth is (let her ignore it) that human beings have neither kindness, nor faith, nor charity beyond what serves to increase the pleasure of the moment. (99)

Due to the fact that the young man has a critical vision concerning his society, he is considered an ill man. In fact, Septimus is totally sceptic and disillusioned in relation to people and life. Therefore, the society sees Septimus as an insane person whose thoughts are disconnected from the bourgeois reality that he abominates so much. In this sense, although Septimus is a sensitive man who feels empty in relation to life, he is condemned to death by “human nature” because “he did not feel” (101) due to the fact that his vision did not fit into the established patterns of society.

Each one in their time and place, these literary works expose the inadequacy of the human being in society. It stems from the fact that some individuals seem to have an understanding of reality that goes beyond the boundaries established by social values and patterns. This is the case of Hamlet and Septimus whose lives are in conflict concerning reality. In relation to Shakespeare’s play, Arnold Hauser claims that the author “sees the world through the eyes of a rich man, whose mentality is liberal, sceptic and disillusioned” (421). To this effect, we can take for granted that Hamlet is an individual whose sceptic vision concerning the society is the fount of his nonconformism and disillusion. For that reason, he fights against the exploitation of society in relation to the individual:

Why, look you now, how unworthy a thing you make of me! / You would play upon me; you would seem to know / my stops; you would pluck out the heart of my / mystery; you would sound me from my lowest note to / the top of my compass: and there is much music, / excellent voice, in this little organ; yet cannot / you make it speak. 'Sblood, do you think I am / easier to be played on than a pipe? Call me what / instrument you will, though you can fret me, yet you / cannot play upon me. (97-98)

In the same way that Hamlet does not permit anybody to play upon him, as we can perceive, Septimus fights against the English society, which is represented by the figure of Dr. Holmes:

Human nature, in short, was on him — the repulsive brute, with the blood-red nostrils. Holmes was on him. Dr. Holmes came quite regularly every day. Once you stumble, Septimus wrote on the back of a postcard, human nature is on you. Holmes is on you. Their only chance was to escape, without letting Holmes know; to Italy — anywhere, anywhere, away from Dr. Holmes. (102)

Although Septimus is considered an insane man, he reveals to be aware of the manipulation of society towards men. To this effect, Paul Strathern claims that Woolf’s objective by writing Mrs. Dalloway exposes the extension of her ambition, which was to criticize society. (45) According to Woolf’s diary, she wished to criticize the social patterns of her epoch. She wrote: "I want to give life and death, sanity and insanity; I want to criticize the social system, and show it at work, at its most intense" (46). For sure, the narrator exposes in Mrs. Dalloway the conflict between individual and society by imprinting experiences and emotions on the inner of Septimus. That is because Septimus is not able to accept his reality since he feels unconformed and unfitted in relation to it.

As a final point, death is the solution for both cases. That is because Hamlet and Septimus go beyond the corrupted vision that society has about human relations. For that reason, they are suffocated by reality. That is, it is not possible to live in a world as they have experienced. In a battle for repairing the order of things, Hamlet witnesses the deaths of Ophelia, Gertrude and Claudius. However, it is not enough to modify his vision about the world. Hamlet will never fit into reality. Therefore, Shakespeare would not give another final to Hamlet since the prince of Denmark broke the vision conditioned by society.

O, I die, Horatio: / The potent poison quite o'er-crows my spirit, / I cannot live to hear the news from England; / But I do prophesy the election lights / On Fortinbras: he has my dying voice; / So tell him, with the occurrents, more and less, / Which have solicited. The rest is silence. (154)

Actually, before he is poisoned by Laertes’ sword, he was poisoned by reality. In the same way, we can say that Septimus feels poisoned by everything and everybody around him. This perception is the cause of his emptying. For that reason, filled by misunderstanding thoughts, he prefers to commit suicide rather than accept to live according to the abhorrent society that he is part of:

There remained only the window, the large Bloomsbury-lodging house window, the tiresome, the troublesome, and rather melodramatic business of opening the window and throwing himself out. It was their idea of tragedy, not his or Rezia’s (for she was with him). Holmes and Bradshaw like that sort of thing. (He sat on the sill.) But he would wait till the very last moment. He did not want to die. Life was good. The sun hot. Only human beings — what did THEY want? Coming down the staircase opposite an old man stopped and stared at him. Holmes was at the door. “I’ll give it you!” he cried, and flung himself vigorously, violently down on to Mrs. Filmer’s area railings. (164)

As these words indicate, death is the only solution to Septimus’ conflict since his way of understanding reality is totally opposite to the social values and beliefs.

All things considered, we can take for granted that some literary works expose how society punishes with death the one who commits the mistake of going beyond the conventional boundaries. On the other hand, they also show that death can be seen as the only exit for those who become aware of the corruption and degradation of the human relations in society:

How Shakespeare loathed humanity — the putting on of clothes, the getting of children, the sordidity of the mouth and the belly! This was now revealed to Septimus; the message hidden in the beauty of words. The secret signal which one generation passes, under disguise, to the next is loathing, hatred, despair. (98)

As we can see in Septimus’ comment, this perception seems to be related to a certain comprehension about human relations which can be seen through many literary works produced in different epochs. In other words, this strong awareness of life refers to “the secret signal” (98) that is possible to see in the life of Hamlet and Septimus that shows us the eternal conflict between individual and society and its consequences.

References:

Hauser, Arnold. História Social da Arte e da Literatura. São Paulo: Marins Fontes, 1998. Ronchetti, Ann. The Artist, Society & Sexuality in Virginia Woolf’s Novels. New York & London: Routledge, 2004.
Heliodoro, Barbara. Por que ler Shakespeare. São Paulo: Globo, 2008.
Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Hamlet: the Prince of Denmark. London: Penguin Popular Classics, 1994.
Strathern, Paul. Virginia Woolf em 90 minutos. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar, 2009.
Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. London: Penguin Popular Classics, 1996.


A REVOLUTION THAT HAS NEVER HAPPENED:
MANIPULATION AND POWER IN ANIMAL FARM


Rafael Nunes Ferreira
Graduando do Curso de Letras - Português/Inglês e respectivas literturas
Universidade Federal do Pampa - Unipampa - Campus Bagé



Societies in Western Culture countries are characterized by classes established through power relations. Some of those classes are formed by individuals who make use of power mechanisms in order to manipulate and control people. Their principal objective is to ascend to the power. According to Michael Foucault, this kind of relation is called pastorate, which refers to

the existence within society of a category of individuals absolutely specific and singular who do not define themselves by their status, nor absolutely by their profession, nor absolutely by their individual, intellectual or moral qualifications, but who in the Christian society play the role of pastor [pasteur], shepherd [berger] in relation to others who are their sheep or their flock. (121)

This pastoral power is characterized by the fact that it is exercised over a flock of people and it aims at the salvation of it. In other words, the pastoral power is seen as a beneficent power since the shepherd must care for every member of the flock. Besides, Foucault states that this kind of power relation was introduced by Christianity and generated a new set of mechanisms of control which has been used especially by ruling classes (122). In this sense, as a representation of reality, some literary works show the way that this process is established and what its consequences in society are. The fable Animal Farm by George Orwell, for instance, can be considered an example of the manifestation of pastoral power. That is because it is possible to perceive the development of a process in which a group of pigs assumes the role of shepherd in a society idealized and governed by animals.

Animal Farm initially exposes a class of animals that is oppressed by Mr. Jones, the owner of the Manor Farm. However, Old Major, that is denominated as “the prize Middle White boar” (02), has a dream and decides to communicate it to the other animals. He claims to the other animals that their lives are not good:

Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength; and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. (03)

Old Major exposes how terrible is the life of the animals from Manor Farm. Thus, he encourages all animals to “work night and day, body and soul, for the overthrow of the human race” (04). As a shepherd that cares for the flock, Old Major wants to make the other animals aware of the fact that they have to fight against their miserable condition. Thus, we can assume that his speech produces “a completely new outlook on life” (06).

Nevertheless, Old Major dies and “the work of teaching and organizing the others fell naturally upon the pigs, who were generally recognized as being the cleverest of the animals” (06). In the group of pigs, Snowball, Napoleon and Squealer are the most prominent animals:

These three [Snowball, Napoleon and Squealer] had elaborated Old Major's teachings into a complete system of thought, to which they gave the name of Animalism. Several nights a week, after Mr. Jones was asleep, they held secret meetings in the barn and expounded the principles of Animalism to the others. (06)

As we can see, they use of Old Major’s speech in order to convince the other animals to struggle against Mr. Jones and take the locality where they live. This attitude allows Snowball and Napoleon to be seen as shepherds in the community of animals. That is because, in an apparent way, they lead the animals with the purpose of bringing benefits to the whole group. In this manner, we can take for granted that Old Major’s persuasive speech is a powerful instrument used by the pigs due to the fact that it allowed them to exercise the pastoral power. Thus, they stimulate the other animals to perceive their real condition and “flung themselves upon their tormentors” (07). To this effect, Foucault states that the pastoral power

is opposed to a customary, traditional political power, in that it does not essentially extend over a territory: the shepherd does not rule over a territory, he rules over a multiplicity of individuals, he reigns over sheep, cows, animals. […] Its principle function is not so much the assurance of a victory, since it does not extend over a territory. (122)

For that reason, we can assume that the pigs make use of the pastoral power in order to “rule over” (22) the community of animals from Manor Farm. Thus, after the expulsion of Mr. Jones, the pigs become free to start using their superior intelligence in order to ascend to the power.

In order to continue their plan, the pigs take the necessary steps to maintain their status quo and convince the animals to work in favor of the group. Therefore, was can say that one of the most important accomplishments reached by them is the organization of the “seven commandments” (09), which are based on the principles of equality idealized by Old Major. In this sense, we can consider the set of rules established by the pigs as a type of ideological and religious mechanism which is used to create a false idea of equality among the animals. Thus, the seven commandments represent “an unalterable law by which all the animals on Animal Farm must live for ever after” (09). In relation to them, we can observe at least two important aspects. Firstly, these rules restate the idea that the pigs are the intellectual class in the society comparing to the labouring class, which is formed by the other animals. Secondly, they reiterate the role of the pigs as the shepherd that guides the sheep to the salvation by helping them find good meadows, as we can see:

1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy / 2. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend / 3. No animal shall wear clothes / 4. No animal shall sleep in a bed / 5. No animal shall drink alcohol / 6. No animal shall kill any other animal / 7. All animals are equal (9).

By observing these commandments, we can assume that the pigs write them in accordance with the animals’ needs. As it is possible to observe, the commandments 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are related to the idea of difference (human beings vs animals) which is the opposite of the idea of equality. Besides, 6 and 7 are rules based on the idea of equality (among all animals). This quick and persuasive speech enables the pigs to govern and supervise the groups of animals since they do not question anything. As a consequence, the pigs – “with their superior knowledge” (10) –, gradually constitute a new tyrannical system in which they are oppressors instead of the oppressed class.

To this effect, we can say that the use of the persuasive speech is responsible for the stratification of the other animals. That is because it is possible to perceive the beginning of two processes that are connected to each other after the expulsion of Mr. Jones. These processes correspond to the consolidation of the pigs as an eminent group and the complete alienation of the other animals. This fact is related to the difference that the pigs establish in their relationship with the other animals. They conduct the apathy and ignorance of the animals in order to create two different classes in the community of animals: the ruling class and the working class, i.e., one formed by shepherds and another constituted by sheep. As a result, the “brainworkers” (13) – as the pigs denominated themselves –, create a new social hierarchy. In this new structure, all the animals are induced to accept certain beliefs and facts without questioning them, as it is possible to notice in the excerpt below:

The mystery of where the milk went to was soon cleared up. It was mixed every day into the pigs' mash. The early apples were now ripening, and the grass of the orchard was littered with windfalls. The animals had assumed as a matter of course that these would be shared out equally; one day, however, the order went forth that all the windfalls were to be collected and brought to the harness-room for the use of the pigs. At this some of the other animals murmured, but it was no use. All the pigs were in full agreement on this point, even Snowball and Napoleon. (12)

As we can see, the pigs can increase their advantages by manipulating the facts through the use of speech and due to the fact that they belong to the ruling class. It happens because the other animals are always prone to follow what the pigs tell them as they are seen as shepherds.

After the passage above shown, Squealer – the pig who spreads the propaganda of Napoleon among the other animals –, is called to “make the necessary explanations to the others” (12). He uses his convincing speech to justify to the other animals the fact that the pigs keep all the milk and apples for themselves instead of dividing them among all the animals:

Our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our health. […] The whole management and organization of this farm depend on us. Day and night we are watching over your welfare. It is for your sake that we drink that milk and eat those apples. Do you know what would happen if we pigs failed in our duty? Jones would come back! Yes, Jones would come back! Surely, comrades,’ cried Squealer almost pleadingly, skipping from side to side and whisking his tail, ‘surely there is no one among you who wants to see Jones come back? (13)

Squealer’ speech shows us how those in power frequently make use of rhetoric and language to twist the reality with the purpose of keeping their power. For that reason, Squealer convinces the other animal to accept it since the community of animals, as a flock of sheep, depends on the shepherds.

As a result, we can say that the truth is constantly avoided by the pigs since their government is supported by lies and illusions. In this false reality, the other animals become incapable to oppose to the pigs. That is because they can not struggle against their shepherds in order to remain alive. This condition is the result of the persuasive language used by the pigs, which allows them to be seen as a privileged group among the animals. Therefore, we can say that the other animals submit themselves to the hard work without questioning anything:

All that year the animals worked like slaves. But they were happy in their work; they grudged no effort or sacrifice, well aware that everything that they did was for the benefit of themselves and those of their kind who would come after them, and not for a pack of idle, thieving human beings. (21)

As we can observe, this passage shows how is possible to create an illusion and take advantage of it. In Animal Farm, it happens because most of the animals does not have enough knowledge to perceive their reality. For that reason, they are guided to believe that they are a group of animals that needs to be governed by a shepherd.

Finally, the manipulation of memory is another mechanism used by the pigs in order to maintain their superior condition. An example of this method can be seen when some animals are killed by Napoleon’s dogs after questioning some acts committed by the pigs: “when the terror caused by the executions had died down, some of the animals remembered, or thought they remembered, that the Sixth Commandment decreed ‘No animal shall kill any other animal’” (32). Some animals initially feel that “the killings which had taken place did not square with this” (32). Nevertheless, a female horse, who suspected that the pigs had violated their prohibitions, asked to a goat to read the Sixth Commandment again:

Muriel read the Commandment for her. It ran: ‘No animal shall kill any other animal without cause.’ Somehow or other, the last two words had slipped out of the animals' memory. But they saw now that the Commandment had not been violated; for clearly there was good reason for killing the traitors who had leagued themselves with Snowball. (32)

As this passage indicates, the pigs make use of the speech to reconstitute the collective memory and modify the Seven Commandments. Therefore, we can assume that speech is used not only to establish, but also to sustain the new official ideology introduced by the pigs on the farm.

Another example of this practice is the adaptation of the last commandment. In the beginning, it was written that “all animals are equal” (09). However, the pigs needed to justify the fact that “neither pigs nor dogs produced any food by their own labour” (45) while the other animals “worked like slaves” (41). Therefore, they modify this commandment to “ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL, BUT SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE EQUAL THAN OTHERS” (47). As we can see, although there is a latent distinction between pigs and the other animals, the idea of equality is still present in this commandment. That is, all animals are still equal, but the pigs induce the other animals to believe that some animals more equal than others.

Animal Farm is a fable in which we can see the use of the pastoral power as a current practice in society. In this sense, Foucault states that “through the organization of the pastorate in the Christian society […] it was developed an instrument of power extremely important for the whole history of the Christian Western” (67). In Orwell’s story, it is possible to say that the pastoral power is hidden behind the idea of the revolution, which is used to permit the pigs to ascend to the power. That is because the pigs make use of techniques and procedures that, as Foucault notes, produce an obedience that leads to a state of obedience (69). Thus, as shepherds, the pigs can impose their needs to the other animals. As a conclusion, we can take for granted that the revolution became “a dim tradition, passed on by word of mouth,” (44) that had never brought benefits to any animal — excluding the pigs, which can be seen as representatives of the pastoral power.


References:


Foucault, Michael. Ética, Sexualidade, Política. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária, 2004.
Orwell, George. Animal Farm. New York: Signet Classics, 1996.

WOMEN’S POLITICAL POSITIONINGS IN TENNESSEE WILLIAMS’ CAT IN A HOT TIN ROOF AND ADRIENNE RICH’S SNAPSHOTS OF A DAUGHTER-IN-LAW


Rafael Nunes Ferreira
Graduando do Curso de Letras - Português/Inglês e respectivas literturas
Universidade Federal do Pampa - Unipampa - Campus Bagé



In Western Culture societies, individuals are constantly submitted to the conventional structures determined by ruling classes. In this sense, the role of women in patriarchal cultures can be considered one of the most studied topics concerning the relations between individual and society. They focus especially on the submission of woman to the social patterns established by male-centered values. That is because societies characterized by male ideals have attributed a rigid role to women that standardizes it as a domestic function. In this context, we can observe different political positionings in relation to the role of the female individual in society. Firstly, there are those who question the established values and costumes in order to break the social status quo, which is seen, in some cases, as a way of maintaining false appearances and illusions in society. Secondly, there are individuals that are absolutely passive and apathetic in relation to their reality as they are conditioned and lead by the social structures. Consequently, it is possible to say that in society these two types of individual exert different ways of interacting with the social values and costumes, as they make use of contrasting political positionings.

As a social product, literary texts expose different situations in which individuals are obliged to deal with the social conventional structures. These works are relevant because they show how people have dealt with values, ideologies or patterns of behavior in society. In this sense, Antonio Candido claims that literature can be determined by aspects related to social structures and its implications (30). According to him,

They determine, in any case, the four moments of the production, because: a) the artist, lead by the impulse of an inner need, conducts it according to the patterns of his/her epoch; b) [he/she] chooses certain topics; c) [he/she] uses certain forms and d) the resultant synthesis acts upon the environment . (30)

In this sense, it is possible to state that all these aspects can be seen in plays in which characters have to deal with oppressive social structures. They also can be exposed in poetic texts in which the lyric I exerts his/her point of view concerning the rigid roles attributed to men and women in society. By facing the social structures, literary texts, whether a play or poem, are able to show different political positionings exerted by men and women. In this sense, Tennessee Williams’ Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Adrienne Rich’s Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law can be understood as works that explore these different points of view. In both works, we can assume that individuals are interacting in society through political positionings. That is because some of these individuals can exert an attitude of acceptance or rupture in relation to the conventional moulds. To this effect, we can take for granted that Maggie in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and the lyric I in Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law assume different political positions by facing their reality. In this context, they are submitted to an oppressive social structure as both of them are women who live in a society characterized by male ideals. Nevertheless, Maggie is a woman who seems to accept her condition of a mere wife in society, whereas the lyric I is another one that tries to break the social status quo.

Firstly, we can contrast the situation in which Margaret (Maggie) and the lyric I are exposed in the play and in the poem. In Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, it is possible to say that Maggie is absolutely apathetic in relation to her female reduced condition. She is an attractive woman who keeps a relationship based on appearances with her husband Brick, who does not express any affection for her, as the narrator notes: “A tone of politely feigned interest, indifference, or worse, is characteristic of his speech with Margaret” (17). Moreover, Maggie and Brick live in constant tension, as we can see below:

MARGARET:
You’ve got to!
BRICK:
I don’t have to do anything I don’t want to do. You keep forgetting the conditions on which I agreed to stay on living with you.
MARGARET [out before she knows it]:
I’m not living with you. We occupy the same cage. (35)

Due to this unpleasant circumstance, Maggie is taken by a feeling of discomfort as she perceives that her marriage with Brick is actually a falsehood. For that reason, the impression that we have when we read Williams’ play is that Maggie is a prisoner of the circumstances as she seems to be incapable of getting out unhurt of her marriage. In this sense, we can suggest that the reality around her is determined by the acquiescence of woman in a patriarchal society. She, in her turn, seems to be aware that women are expected to play the role of a wife. That is because at the same time that Maggie states that she “feel(s) all the time like a cat on a hot tin roof!” (40), she also does not do anything in order to escape from her social function. Therefore, it is possible to say that Maggie exerts an attitude of conformism concerning her condition.

In this sense, we can say that Maggie’s political positioning is totally contrasting in relation to the lyric I of Rich’s poem Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law. In this poem, the lyric I, which can be understood as a female voice, exposes her restless mind in relation to the role attributed to woman in society:

You, once a belle in Shreveport, / with henna-colored hair, skin like a peachbud, / still have your dresses copied from that time, / and play a Chopin prelude / called by Cortot: "Delicious recollections / float like perfume through the memory”. / Your mind now, moldering like wedding-cake, / heavy with useless experience, rich / with suspicion, rumor, fantasy, / crumbling to pieces under the knife-edge / of mere fact. In the prime of your life. / Nervy, glowering, your daughter / wipes the teaspoons, grows another way. (09)

As these verses point out, the lyric I initially talks about a woman “with henna-colored hair / skin like a peachbud” (09) in a process of mental transformation. She claims: “Your mind now, moldering like wedding-cake, / heavy with useless experience…” (09). In this passage, we can suggest that the image of a moldered wedding-cake symbolizes the deconstruction of the marriage as social ritual imposed to women. Moreover, as the lyric I notes, it only brings “useless experience” (09). To this effect, these words can be seen as an alert concerning woman’s inconsistent thought, which is determined by patriarchal societies. As it is possible to see, the lyric I’s speech aims at making women aware of their cultural role transmitted by societies. She claims: “a thinking woman sleeps with monsters. / The beak that grips her, she becomes… (09)” As we can observe, these verses enunciate the transformation of the woman condition. According to Albert Gelpi in his analysis of Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law,

This thinking woman paraphrases Baudelaire, parodies Horace to register the pressures that make mind moulder. The shock of the imagery is due not only to its violence (each of the passages refers to cutting edge) but to an accuracy so unsparing that the imagination reacts psychosomatically: muscles tighten and nerves twinge. The ten sections of “Snapshots” comprise an album of woman as “daughter-in-law”, bound into the set of roles which men have established and which female acquiescence has re-enforced. (286)

As we can perceive in Gelpi’s comment, the lyric I explores the female role with the purpose of revealing the truth concerning the woman condition. By doing it she permits other women to see clearly their reduced reality in which they are seen as inferior beings. Therefore, we can assume that the lyric I exerts a political positioning that struggles with the social status quo instead of accepting the values and costumes which are determined by male ideals.

Maggie, on the contrary, does not question her condition as a wife even before a reality that constantly seems to bother her. That is because Maggie’s self-perception is determined by a lack of self-esteem, as we can observe in the narrator’s comment:

[She is alone, completely alone, and she feels it. She draws in, hunches her shoulders, raises her arms with fists clenched, shuts her eyes tight as a child to be stabbed with a vaccination needle. When she opens her eyes again, what she sees is the long oval mirror and she rushes straight to it, stares into with a grimace and says: “Who are you?” — Then she crouches a little and answers herself in a different voice which is high, thin, mocking: “I am Maggie the Cat!” — Straightens quickly as bathroom door opens a little and Bricks calls out to her.] (49)

In this passage, Maggie curiously makes an analogy between her and a cat. The image of a cat is essential to understand Maggie’s condition as cats are considered domestic animals. Moreover, somehow or other, they are beings that need to be domesticated. For that reason, it is possible to say that Maggie is aware of her role as a wife by exerting her point of view concerning her situation:

BRICK:
Maggie, I wouldn’t divorce you for being unfaithful or anything else. Don’t you know that? Hell. I’d be relieved to know that you’d found yourself a lover.
MARGARET:
Well, I’m taking no chances. No, I’d rather stay on this hot tin roof.
BRICK:
A hot tin roof’s ‘n uncomfo’table place t’ stay on…
[He starts to whistle softly.]
MARGARET [through his whistle]:
Yeah, but I can stay on it just as long as I have to.
BRICK:
You could leave me, Maggie.
MARGARET:
Don’t want to and will not! […] (51-52)

As we can observe, this passage shows how Maggie manifests her pre-disposition to accept her role as a wife. Besides, it is evident that she reveals a preoccupation in maintaining it even when she has to face her failing marriage. In this sense, Paul J. Hurley observes that Maggie’s attitude stems from a point of view determined by social values which are originated in a “society that is false, lying, hypocritical and mendacious” (51). In other words, a society that disguises behind illusions and false appearances.

In Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law, on the contrary, the lyric I stares at reality because, as Gelpi notes, “to be is to see; I am eye. Poetry functions as the vehicle for seeing and for fixing one comes to see. It is the camera with lens and focus, and poems are snapshots” (286). To this effect, we can assume that the lyric I exposes and explores the various dimension of woman's life inflicted with male exploitation:

Poised, trembling and unsatisfied, before / an unlocked door, that cage of cages, / tell us, you bird, you tragical machine — / is this fertillisante douleur? Pinned down / by love, for you the only natural action, / are you edged more keen / to prise the secrets of the vault? has Nature shown / her household books to you, daughter-in-law, / that her sons never saw? (11)

As we can observe, each moment in woman’s social life must be exposed entirely. That is because women have to be conscious of their ‘inferior’ condition which was imposed by society in order to criticize it. This idea corroborates that the lyric I’s attitude aims at making women aware of their “powers of perception”, as Gelpi characterizes it. Therefore, the lyric I talks about a woman who begins to perceive her identity:

Well, / she's long about her coming, who must be / more merciless to herself than history. Her mind full to the wind, I see her plunge / breasted and glancing through the currents, / taking the light upon her / at least as beautiful as any boy / or helicopter, / poised, still coming, / her fine blades making the air wince / but her cargo / no promise then: / delivered / palpable / ours. (12-13)

In the end of the poem, the lyric I transmits her wistful voice concerning the idea of a new social reality in which women do not have an inferior position. These verses show the powers of woman who overcomes the obstacles and resistances: “I see her plunge / breasted and glancing through the currents, / taking the light upon her” (12). Therefore, we can assume that the lyric I keeps her promise as her words are “delivered” and “palpable” (13).

Unlike the lyric I in Rich’s poem, Maggie does not only accept her submissive role in society, but she is also aware of the ways that a woman can use her body in order to take advantages. One of these evidences is related to the fact that Maggie understands that she has to look as a pretty object in order to be able to call male attention:

MARGARET:
… I’m confident of it. That’s what I’m keeping myself attractive for. For the time when you’ll see me again like other men see me. Yes, like other men see me. They still see me, Brick, and they like what they see. Uh-huh. Some of them would give their —
Look, Brick! (50)

One of the reasons that makes Maggie keep herself attractive can be the fact that she seems to consider it as a condition to maintain her marriage. However, Brick does not have any desire for her. Therefore, Maggie makes use of another artifice, as we can see:

MARGARET:
Announcement of life beginning! A child is coming, sired by Brick, and out of Maggie the Cat! I have Brick’s child in my body, an’ that’s my birthday present to Big Daddy on this birthday! (167)

The announcement of her pregnancy can be seen as another evidence of Maggie’s positioning in face of reality, as this fact seems to be an artifice to maintain her marriage protected by false appearances. That is, the image of a complete family.

As we have seen, Maggie and the lyric I have political positioning absolutely contrasting. Maggie is a wife who lives a marriage that is characterized by falsehood. However, the lyric I explores the searching of a female conscience as a way of vindicating a condition of equality in society, that is, to be “as beautiful as any boy” (12). Therefore, we can assume that they have extremely different attitudes by facing their reality as women. Maggie follows blindly the stereotype of a woman that seems to be satisfied with her social condition as a wife. The lyric I, on the contrary, questions the role imposed to woman by society at the same time that she presents, “through images of resistance and achievement”, as Gelpi characterizes it, a new perspective of the female conscience in a society that is idealized and governed by men.



References:

Candido, Antonio. Literatura e Sociedade. Rio de Janeiro: Ouro sobre Azul, 2006.
Gelpi, Albert. Adrienne Rich: The Poetics of Change in Adrienne Rich’s Poetry and Prose: Poems, Prose and Reviews and Criticism. New York & London: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1993.
Paul J. Hurley. Tennessee Williams: The Playwriter as a Social Critic. Theatre Annual 21, 1964.
Rich, Adrienne. Adrienne Rich’s Poetry and Prose: Poems, Prose and Reviews and Criticism. New York & London: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1993.
Williams, Tennessee. Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. New York: A New Directions Book, 2004.