Mostrando postagens com marcador English Culture. Mostrar todas as postagens
Mostrando postagens com marcador English Culture. Mostrar todas as postagens

WOMEN’S POLITICAL POSITIONINGS IN TENNESSEE WILLIAMS’ CAT IN A HOT TIN ROOF AND ADRIENNE RICH’S SNAPSHOTS OF A DAUGHTER-IN-LAW


Rafael Nunes Ferreira
Graduando do Curso de Letras - Português/Inglês e respectivas literturas
Universidade Federal do Pampa - Unipampa - Campus Bagé



In Western Culture societies, individuals are constantly submitted to the conventional structures determined by ruling classes. In this sense, the role of women in patriarchal cultures can be considered one of the most studied topics concerning the relations between individual and society. They focus especially on the submission of woman to the social patterns established by male-centered values. That is because societies characterized by male ideals have attributed a rigid role to women that standardizes it as a domestic function. In this context, we can observe different political positionings in relation to the role of the female individual in society. Firstly, there are those who question the established values and costumes in order to break the social status quo, which is seen, in some cases, as a way of maintaining false appearances and illusions in society. Secondly, there are individuals that are absolutely passive and apathetic in relation to their reality as they are conditioned and lead by the social structures. Consequently, it is possible to say that in society these two types of individual exert different ways of interacting with the social values and costumes, as they make use of contrasting political positionings.

As a social product, literary texts expose different situations in which individuals are obliged to deal with the social conventional structures. These works are relevant because they show how people have dealt with values, ideologies or patterns of behavior in society. In this sense, Antonio Candido claims that literature can be determined by aspects related to social structures and its implications (30). According to him,

They determine, in any case, the four moments of the production, because: a) the artist, lead by the impulse of an inner need, conducts it according to the patterns of his/her epoch; b) [he/she] chooses certain topics; c) [he/she] uses certain forms and d) the resultant synthesis acts upon the environment . (30)

In this sense, it is possible to state that all these aspects can be seen in plays in which characters have to deal with oppressive social structures. They also can be exposed in poetic texts in which the lyric I exerts his/her point of view concerning the rigid roles attributed to men and women in society. By facing the social structures, literary texts, whether a play or poem, are able to show different political positionings exerted by men and women. In this sense, Tennessee Williams’ Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Adrienne Rich’s Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law can be understood as works that explore these different points of view. In both works, we can assume that individuals are interacting in society through political positionings. That is because some of these individuals can exert an attitude of acceptance or rupture in relation to the conventional moulds. To this effect, we can take for granted that Maggie in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and the lyric I in Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law assume different political positions by facing their reality. In this context, they are submitted to an oppressive social structure as both of them are women who live in a society characterized by male ideals. Nevertheless, Maggie is a woman who seems to accept her condition of a mere wife in society, whereas the lyric I is another one that tries to break the social status quo.

Firstly, we can contrast the situation in which Margaret (Maggie) and the lyric I are exposed in the play and in the poem. In Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, it is possible to say that Maggie is absolutely apathetic in relation to her female reduced condition. She is an attractive woman who keeps a relationship based on appearances with her husband Brick, who does not express any affection for her, as the narrator notes: “A tone of politely feigned interest, indifference, or worse, is characteristic of his speech with Margaret” (17). Moreover, Maggie and Brick live in constant tension, as we can see below:

MARGARET:
You’ve got to!
BRICK:
I don’t have to do anything I don’t want to do. You keep forgetting the conditions on which I agreed to stay on living with you.
MARGARET [out before she knows it]:
I’m not living with you. We occupy the same cage. (35)

Due to this unpleasant circumstance, Maggie is taken by a feeling of discomfort as she perceives that her marriage with Brick is actually a falsehood. For that reason, the impression that we have when we read Williams’ play is that Maggie is a prisoner of the circumstances as she seems to be incapable of getting out unhurt of her marriage. In this sense, we can suggest that the reality around her is determined by the acquiescence of woman in a patriarchal society. She, in her turn, seems to be aware that women are expected to play the role of a wife. That is because at the same time that Maggie states that she “feel(s) all the time like a cat on a hot tin roof!” (40), she also does not do anything in order to escape from her social function. Therefore, it is possible to say that Maggie exerts an attitude of conformism concerning her condition.

In this sense, we can say that Maggie’s political positioning is totally contrasting in relation to the lyric I of Rich’s poem Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law. In this poem, the lyric I, which can be understood as a female voice, exposes her restless mind in relation to the role attributed to woman in society:

You, once a belle in Shreveport, / with henna-colored hair, skin like a peachbud, / still have your dresses copied from that time, / and play a Chopin prelude / called by Cortot: "Delicious recollections / float like perfume through the memory”. / Your mind now, moldering like wedding-cake, / heavy with useless experience, rich / with suspicion, rumor, fantasy, / crumbling to pieces under the knife-edge / of mere fact. In the prime of your life. / Nervy, glowering, your daughter / wipes the teaspoons, grows another way. (09)

As these verses point out, the lyric I initially talks about a woman “with henna-colored hair / skin like a peachbud” (09) in a process of mental transformation. She claims: “Your mind now, moldering like wedding-cake, / heavy with useless experience…” (09). In this passage, we can suggest that the image of a moldered wedding-cake symbolizes the deconstruction of the marriage as social ritual imposed to women. Moreover, as the lyric I notes, it only brings “useless experience” (09). To this effect, these words can be seen as an alert concerning woman’s inconsistent thought, which is determined by patriarchal societies. As it is possible to see, the lyric I’s speech aims at making women aware of their cultural role transmitted by societies. She claims: “a thinking woman sleeps with monsters. / The beak that grips her, she becomes… (09)” As we can observe, these verses enunciate the transformation of the woman condition. According to Albert Gelpi in his analysis of Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law,

This thinking woman paraphrases Baudelaire, parodies Horace to register the pressures that make mind moulder. The shock of the imagery is due not only to its violence (each of the passages refers to cutting edge) but to an accuracy so unsparing that the imagination reacts psychosomatically: muscles tighten and nerves twinge. The ten sections of “Snapshots” comprise an album of woman as “daughter-in-law”, bound into the set of roles which men have established and which female acquiescence has re-enforced. (286)

As we can perceive in Gelpi’s comment, the lyric I explores the female role with the purpose of revealing the truth concerning the woman condition. By doing it she permits other women to see clearly their reduced reality in which they are seen as inferior beings. Therefore, we can assume that the lyric I exerts a political positioning that struggles with the social status quo instead of accepting the values and costumes which are determined by male ideals.

Maggie, on the contrary, does not question her condition as a wife even before a reality that constantly seems to bother her. That is because Maggie’s self-perception is determined by a lack of self-esteem, as we can observe in the narrator’s comment:

[She is alone, completely alone, and she feels it. She draws in, hunches her shoulders, raises her arms with fists clenched, shuts her eyes tight as a child to be stabbed with a vaccination needle. When she opens her eyes again, what she sees is the long oval mirror and she rushes straight to it, stares into with a grimace and says: “Who are you?” — Then she crouches a little and answers herself in a different voice which is high, thin, mocking: “I am Maggie the Cat!” — Straightens quickly as bathroom door opens a little and Bricks calls out to her.] (49)

In this passage, Maggie curiously makes an analogy between her and a cat. The image of a cat is essential to understand Maggie’s condition as cats are considered domestic animals. Moreover, somehow or other, they are beings that need to be domesticated. For that reason, it is possible to say that Maggie is aware of her role as a wife by exerting her point of view concerning her situation:

BRICK:
Maggie, I wouldn’t divorce you for being unfaithful or anything else. Don’t you know that? Hell. I’d be relieved to know that you’d found yourself a lover.
MARGARET:
Well, I’m taking no chances. No, I’d rather stay on this hot tin roof.
BRICK:
A hot tin roof’s ‘n uncomfo’table place t’ stay on…
[He starts to whistle softly.]
MARGARET [through his whistle]:
Yeah, but I can stay on it just as long as I have to.
BRICK:
You could leave me, Maggie.
MARGARET:
Don’t want to and will not! […] (51-52)

As we can observe, this passage shows how Maggie manifests her pre-disposition to accept her role as a wife. Besides, it is evident that she reveals a preoccupation in maintaining it even when she has to face her failing marriage. In this sense, Paul J. Hurley observes that Maggie’s attitude stems from a point of view determined by social values which are originated in a “society that is false, lying, hypocritical and mendacious” (51). In other words, a society that disguises behind illusions and false appearances.

In Snapshots of a Daughter-in-law, on the contrary, the lyric I stares at reality because, as Gelpi notes, “to be is to see; I am eye. Poetry functions as the vehicle for seeing and for fixing one comes to see. It is the camera with lens and focus, and poems are snapshots” (286). To this effect, we can assume that the lyric I exposes and explores the various dimension of woman's life inflicted with male exploitation:

Poised, trembling and unsatisfied, before / an unlocked door, that cage of cages, / tell us, you bird, you tragical machine — / is this fertillisante douleur? Pinned down / by love, for you the only natural action, / are you edged more keen / to prise the secrets of the vault? has Nature shown / her household books to you, daughter-in-law, / that her sons never saw? (11)

As we can observe, each moment in woman’s social life must be exposed entirely. That is because women have to be conscious of their ‘inferior’ condition which was imposed by society in order to criticize it. This idea corroborates that the lyric I’s attitude aims at making women aware of their “powers of perception”, as Gelpi characterizes it. Therefore, the lyric I talks about a woman who begins to perceive her identity:

Well, / she's long about her coming, who must be / more merciless to herself than history. Her mind full to the wind, I see her plunge / breasted and glancing through the currents, / taking the light upon her / at least as beautiful as any boy / or helicopter, / poised, still coming, / her fine blades making the air wince / but her cargo / no promise then: / delivered / palpable / ours. (12-13)

In the end of the poem, the lyric I transmits her wistful voice concerning the idea of a new social reality in which women do not have an inferior position. These verses show the powers of woman who overcomes the obstacles and resistances: “I see her plunge / breasted and glancing through the currents, / taking the light upon her” (12). Therefore, we can assume that the lyric I keeps her promise as her words are “delivered” and “palpable” (13).

Unlike the lyric I in Rich’s poem, Maggie does not only accept her submissive role in society, but she is also aware of the ways that a woman can use her body in order to take advantages. One of these evidences is related to the fact that Maggie understands that she has to look as a pretty object in order to be able to call male attention:

MARGARET:
… I’m confident of it. That’s what I’m keeping myself attractive for. For the time when you’ll see me again like other men see me. Yes, like other men see me. They still see me, Brick, and they like what they see. Uh-huh. Some of them would give their —
Look, Brick! (50)

One of the reasons that makes Maggie keep herself attractive can be the fact that she seems to consider it as a condition to maintain her marriage. However, Brick does not have any desire for her. Therefore, Maggie makes use of another artifice, as we can see:

MARGARET:
Announcement of life beginning! A child is coming, sired by Brick, and out of Maggie the Cat! I have Brick’s child in my body, an’ that’s my birthday present to Big Daddy on this birthday! (167)

The announcement of her pregnancy can be seen as another evidence of Maggie’s positioning in face of reality, as this fact seems to be an artifice to maintain her marriage protected by false appearances. That is, the image of a complete family.

As we have seen, Maggie and the lyric I have political positioning absolutely contrasting. Maggie is a wife who lives a marriage that is characterized by falsehood. However, the lyric I explores the searching of a female conscience as a way of vindicating a condition of equality in society, that is, to be “as beautiful as any boy” (12). Therefore, we can assume that they have extremely different attitudes by facing their reality as women. Maggie follows blindly the stereotype of a woman that seems to be satisfied with her social condition as a wife. The lyric I, on the contrary, questions the role imposed to woman by society at the same time that she presents, “through images of resistance and achievement”, as Gelpi characterizes it, a new perspective of the female conscience in a society that is idealized and governed by men.



References:

Candido, Antonio. Literatura e Sociedade. Rio de Janeiro: Ouro sobre Azul, 2006.
Gelpi, Albert. Adrienne Rich: The Poetics of Change in Adrienne Rich’s Poetry and Prose: Poems, Prose and Reviews and Criticism. New York & London: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1993.
Paul J. Hurley. Tennessee Williams: The Playwriter as a Social Critic. Theatre Annual 21, 1964.
Rich, Adrienne. Adrienne Rich’s Poetry and Prose: Poems, Prose and Reviews and Criticism. New York & London: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1993.
Williams, Tennessee. Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. New York: A New Directions Book, 2004.


THE SATIRE OF THE ENGLISH VALUES IN GULLIVER’S TRAVEL

Rafael Nunes Ferreira
Graduando do Curso de Letras - Português/Inglês e respectivas literaturas
Universidade Federal do Pampa - Unipampa
Campus Bagé

During centuries, the Western Culture has produced a thought based on the transmission of an idealized model of society in the history of the human civilization. In this thought, stereotypes and social values are privileged in detriment of others. Thus, individuals are born and live according to a pre-set of social patterns that influences their way to be in the world. On Gulliver’s Travels, Jonathan Swift makes a criticism of the cultural patterns transmitted in the English society of his time. The novel narrates the voyages of Gulliver, an Englishman who tries to prove the supremacy of his culture during a sequence of voyages by the world. In this sense, his self-importance can be seen as a way of hybris. However, the criticism on the novel consists on the fact that the customs and values of this Englishman become insignificant in contrast to the ones adopted by the inhabitants of the places that he visits.

Gulliver was born and lived into the social patterns of the English society. In his youth, he studied at Emmanuel College, in Cambridge, and at the University of Leida, where he took a medicine course for two years and seven months. At this period, the traveler also learned about sailing and mathematics. After he finished his studies, he started to work as a surgeon on the ship Swallow, where he worked during three years and a half. However, Gulliver got married to Mary Burton and established in London. He lived there until he received an offer to work on the ship Antelope. Thus, the English surgeon started a number of voyages that lead him to places in which his idealized English culture would be desecrated.

On his initial voyage, Gulliver went to Lilliput, a nation in where for the first and only time he saw himself grandeur, self-reliant and pride of his ascendance. This reign was inhabited by tiny people who were “not six inches high (18)”. For that reason, Gulliver was respected and feared due to his giant stature. However, by socializing with them, he was also able to be accepted by most of that community, because their social system was similar to his. In other words, Gulliver knew how to use political strategies to interact in that small world. Thus, the Englishman did not feel, in a certain way, displaced when he was in Lilliput. Rank, politics, international conflicts were similar to the English society.

During the time Gulliver had contact with this society; we may perceive that the English surgeon was successful because people from Lilliput were like the inhabitants from England. By his description of the Emperor of Lilliput, we can recognize that Lilliput was orientated by the same stereotypes and values of the English society which represents the male-dominated culture:

He is taller by almost the breadth of my nail than any of his Court, which alone is enough to strike an awe into the beholders. His features are strong and masculine; with an Austrian lips and arched nose; his complexion olive; his countenance erect; his body and limbs well proportioned, all his motions graceful, and his deportment majestic. (30)

The reading of the Emperor done by the English surgeon seems to adjust itself to the superiority patterns transmitted by his society. So, we may comprehend why Gulliver did not question his perception concerning the citizens and the Emperor of Lilliput.

The description of the Emperor made by Gulliver is an indicator that helps us to understand the critique presented on this novel. The ruler of Lilliput is a man who “is enough to strike an awe into the beholders (30)”. His appearance has the standards of the idealized models cultivated by the Western Culture: “Austrian lips and arched nose; his complexion olive; his countenance erect; his body and limbs well proportioned (30)”. However, although Lilliput is an island ruled by a distinct man, its great central issues are belittled and reduced to unimportance, like centering on which end of an egg must be open first, the big or the small end. Besides, Gulliver did not question this fact, what can show the banality of his values.

On the other hand, on his second voyage the traveler faces his littleness in the reign of Brobdingnag. He realizes: “I reflected what a mortification it must prove to me to appear as inconsiderable in this nation… (101-102)”. Gulliver is mortified because his pride is violated. He feels substandard in that community in which the inhabitants are much bigger than him.

On other words, Gulliver has to face his double inferiority, which is caused by his size and his strong dislike towards that society. One of the reasons of his dislike is the fact that his society is seen by the majesty of Brobdingnag as a vicious civilization, as we can perceive in the following excerpt:

You have a made a most admirable panegyric upon your country; you have clearly proved that ignorance, idleness and vice may be sometimes the only ingredients for qualifying a legislator; that laws are best explained, interpreted and applied by those whose interest and abilities lie in perverting… […] I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that Nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the Earth. (158-159)

After listening to the words said by the majesty of that reign, Gulliver opts to censure the way the people of Brobdingnag lead their lives rather than consider the words concerning his society. Gulliver has the following point of view in relation to the giant’s society: “The learning of this people is very defective, consisting only in morality, history, poetry and mathematics, wherein they must be allowed to excel (164)”. The attitude adopted by Gulliver can be seen as a way of protecting the values and principles of his society. That is, a manner of supporting his hybris. Besides disagreeing with the judgment of the majesty, he sees in an arrogant way the social system of Brobdingnag, which does not reach the qualities of his society.

After his voyage to Brobdingnag, Gulliver arrives to Laputa, where the traveler perceives his inadequacy. In this island, the inhabitants are more interested in spending their time with mathematical theories and music than in giving attention to him: “...yet must confess I thought myself too much neglected, not without some degree of contempt (209)”. Gulliver is inferior concerning his intelligence since he is not able to have the same level of understanding of the areas of knowledge that the citizens from the floating island are experts. Thus, his pride is again offended and he sees the relativity of those sovereign qualities that he is a carrier. Nevertheless, Gulliver expresses his disapproval in relation to the social actions of the citizens from the floating island, as we can see below:

[They are] so abstracted and involved in speculation that I never met with such disagreeable companions. […] I saw nothing in this country that could invite me to a longer continuance, and began to think of returning home to England. (209 and 232)
Taken by arrogance, the English surgeon does not question the values and qualities of the people from his society, neither his intelligence. Actually, although unfitted to that nation, Gulliver is still part of a dominant culture, whose beliefs, behavior, values, moral rules are most of the time considered superior in relation to a foreign culture.

The last reign visited by Gulliver is Houyhnhnm, where the traveler is compared to an inferior race of savage creatures. This place is inhabited by the Houyhnhnms, a race of intelligent horses, and the Yahoos, a repulsive specie of creatures that behaves like animals. For the Houyhnhnms, Gulliver is considered a Yahoo because he resembles the members of this race. The European people described by the traveler are like the Yahoos: greedy, perverse, lascivious and stupid. They actually are more intelligent than the Yahoos, but rationality makes them worst because according to Gulliver’s master: “when a creature pretending to reason could be capable of such enormities, he dreaded lest the corruption of that faculty might be worse than brutality itself (303)”. We may read these words as a criticism to the English thought, whose hybris is capable to develop the humankind cruelty. Once again the English society appears in a disagreeable way.

We may perceive a satire of the British Empire while Gulliver is in Houyhnhnm and in the other reigns. His stay in these places reveals a criticism of the English habits and values. Social patterns are questioned through the voyages of the English surgeon, in which we can see the relativity of the supremacy of his race. Like a carrier of the hybris transmitted by his nation, Gulliver can be seen as a synecdoche-character, whose superiority exists due to the fact that he is a European man. However, this narrative exposes that his value is actually big only in his nation, where Gulliver lives according to the English social patterns.



REFERENCES:

Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver’s Travels. London: CRW Publishing Limited, 2004.


A CULTURA INGLESA CENTRADA NO HOMEM

Rafael Nunes Ferreira

Universidade Federal do Pampa - UNIPAMPA

A cultura inglesa é a soma da cultura dos povos que invadiram as ilhas britânicas desde os primórdios, quando os celtas chegaram às ilhas no I milênio a.C., até a invasão dos normandos em 1066, liderada por Guilherme, o Conquistador. Dentre os variados povos que habitaram as ilhas, os romanos foram um dos que tiveram grande influência na formação da cultura inglesa, assim como os anglo-saxões. Um dos aspectos incorporados à cultura inglesa nesse período, e que perdura até os nossos dias, aponta para uma cultura centrada no homem, tendo como modelo o homem branco, heterossexual, bem como retratam, por exemplo, as imagens dos cavalheiros arturianos.

De fato, sabemos que, quando os romanos chegaram às ilhas britânicas, lá encontraram grupos celtas que as habitavam desde a Idade do Bronze. Os celtas eram um povo politeísta. Segundo a Wikipédia, “a religião celta venerava múltiplas divindades associadas a atividades, fenômenos da natureza e coisas. Algumas divindades eram variantes de outras, refletindo a estrutura tribal e clânica dos povos celtas”. Entre as divindades, podemos citar as deusas da natureza Tailtiu e Macha; Epona, deusa dos cavalos, e os deuses Goibiniu e Tan Hill. Percebemos, de fato, através desses deuses, a veneração tanto da figura masculina quanto feminina dentro da cultura celta.

No Entanto, com a chegada dos romanos em 55 a.C, quando Júlio César e seu exército romano invadem e dominam os bretões (celtas que habitavam a Britânia), a cultura celta sofre um processo de aculturação devido ao contato com o povo romano. Como sabemos, a sociedade romana, desde a sua formação, fora sempre governada por homens. O documentário Roma: o grande império revela que, para o povo romano, “o adultério era legal para homens, desde que a mulher não fosse casada”, e o lugar da “matrona romana [era] sólida em seu lar romano.” Isso tudo nos revela a posição da mulher na sociedade romana: posição de submissão ao homem. Este o único capaz de governar. O papel da mulher na sociedade romana, portanto, não difere muito do papel da mulher na cultura grega, o de mera reprodutora.

Assim, a imagem do homem como ser forte, astuto e guerreio (vale lembrar aqui a figura de Júlio César, “homem alto e musculoso, que apanhara dos pais para assim se tornar um homem de verdade”, conforme o vemos no documentário Roma: o grande império), servirá de base para a construção de uma cultura inglesa centrada no homem, e que ainda será acrescida pela forte influência da cultura dos povos anglo-saxões, que invadem as ilhas e semeiam o culto pagão. Na mitologia anglo-saxônia, impera a figura do reis dos deuses Odin, enquanto a sua mulher, a deusa do céu Frigg, era apenas venerada como protetora do amor conjugal e das amas de casa.

Datado, presumivelmente, do final do século X, a primeira obra escrita em Old English, o poema épico de origem anglo-saxônia Beowulf, registrado provavelmente por um monge cristão (copista) e que incluiu nele elementos cristãos que se irão misturar a elementos pagãos, é um exemplo claro dessa cultura centrada no homem que irá influenciar toda a cultura inglesa a partir da Idade Média. Esse poema épico, trazido pelos povos invasores, narra a luta entre o herói Beowulf e o monstro Grendel, ou “between good and evil, between humanity and the destructive forces”.

Em Beowulf, o herói (homem) luta com bravura e revela destreza, “em uma hierarquia predominantemente masculina”, de reis, príncipes e guerreiros. Não existem menções, nos textos que buscamos sobre Beowulf, acerca de personagens femininas, devido, provavelmente, à posição meramente figurativa da mulher na sociedade da época. Podemos pensar aqui que o fato de ser a figura do homem – bravo, e guerreiro –, a única capaz de salvar a humanidade das “forças destrutivas”, revela a concepção de mundo adotada na Idade Média, à qual a mulher é colocada em um nível inferior.

Outra obra importante dentro da literatura medieval, Le morte d’Arthur é uma compilação dos romances cavalheirescos franceses composta pelo escritor inglês Thomas Mallory no século XV. A obra de Mallory retrata o desempenho espetacular do rei Artur e dos cavalheiros da Távola Redonda, revelando um ser perfeito, dotado de valentia, lealdade, astúcia: o cavalheiro. Mais uma vez surge a figura de um homem como arquétipo para a sociedade: Artur, o lendário rei bretão. Assim, a obra tem como núcleo as figuras masculinas do rei e seus cavalheiros, mostrando como a sociedade da época valorizava essas figuras, que pareciam surgir quase como uma necessidade de se criar um modelo (masculino) a ser seguido.

Além do mais, se por um lado o homem aparece despido de impurezas e repleto de virtudes-modelo; a mulher, por outro, aparece carregada de vícios, como no caso de uma das narrativas arturianas, na qual surge a figura de Guinevere, a mulher infiel de Artur. Essa narrativa aparece na obra intitulada Historia Regum Britanniae (1139), de Godofredo de Monmouth. E se relembrarmos os tempos romanos, teremos a figura de Cleópatra, que mata seu irmão Ptolomeu e ainda mantém relacionamentos com Júlio César e Marco Antônio, causando grande repercussão dentro da sociedade romana. De fato, são duas figuras femininas que, conforme afirma o professor de literatura inglesa Gélson Peres, revelam uma concepção de mulher como um “homem imperfeito”.

Outra obra importante para a “formação da literatura inglesa de valor universal” (Bandeira, p.156) é The Conterbury Tales, escrita pelo poeta inglês Geoffrey Chaucer. A obra narra a peregrinação de um grupo de viajantes que se desloca até a catedral de Conterbury. Nesse grupo, “existe todo o tipo de personagens de diferentes camadas sociais” (Enciclopédia Encarta). A figura do homem na obra é primordial, pois é o anfitrião (homem) que irá propor que se narre algumas histórias para passar o tempo. Além do mais, as narrativas são contadas em uma ordem em que prepondera a condição social do narrador. Do mais nobre ao mais plebeu. As narrativas são contadas em sua maioria por homens. Ou seja, quem naquela época obtinha dentro da hierarquia medieval posições superiores senão homens?

Na esteira do drama inglês, por outro lado, podemos apontar dois aspectos que revelam a posição central do homem e a periférica da mulher em relação à sociedade: primeiramente, é importante salientarmos que somente homens podiam atuar e, mesmo os papéis femininos deveriam ser representados por homens. As mulheres jamais poderiam atuar, pois as peças eram tão-somente encenadas por homens. No plano temático, peças de autores como Christopher Marlowe e William Shakeaspeare, dois dos maiores expoentes do período elisabetano, tematizam sobre a vida de personalidades masculinas. Obras com Tamerlão - o grande, Eduardo II, Dr. Fausto, A famosa tragédia do rico judeu de malta, de Marlowe ou Hamlet, Otelo, Rei Lear, Henrique VI, Ricardo III, de Shakespeare, só para citar algumas, mostram como a dramaturgia desse período buscava retratar apenas histórias de homens.

O papel da mulher, de fato, é o de mero coadjuvante. Na obra Hamlet, apenas para ilustrar, dentre as mais de vinte personagens masculinas nomeadas, aparecem apenas duas personagens femininas: Gertrudes, rainha da Dinamarca e mãe de Hamlet; e Ofélia, filha de Polônio, o que caracteriza o papel à parte da mulher dentro da cultura inglesa. Assim, passando rapidamente por algumas obras consagradas dentro da literatura inglesa, percebermos a predominante representação do homem dentro da cultura inglesa, isto é, uma cultura centrado no masculino, onde a mulher vive apenas em uma espécie de segundo plano narrativo.

REFERÊNCIAS:

BANDEIRA, Manuel. Noções de história das literaturas. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional.
CARPEAUX, Otto Maria. História da Literatura Ocidental. Vol. 1 e 2. Rio de Janeiro: Alhambra, 1985.
Enciclopédia Microsoft Encarta. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation.
HAUSER, Arnold. História Social da Arte e da Literatura. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2003.
Os Bárbaros: os saxões. DVD produzido pela The History Channel. Publicação e distribuição: Log On Editora Multimídia.
Roma: o grande império. DVD produzido pela The History Channel. Publicação e distribuição: Log On Editora Multimídia.
SHAKESPEARE, William. Hamlet. Trad. FERNANDES, Millôr. Porto Alegre: L&PM Pocket, 2006.
http://www.wikipedia.org/