Although many people believed for many centuries on the possibility of a social equality becoming a reality, as attempted in the Russian Revolution in 1917, it is known that this ideal has not been achieved in society yet. While this is a fact, many groups of people believe that social equality may come true one day. However, this day has not arrived and social stratification is still a reality. Such stratification is enlarged by the use of discourse. It is possible to say that this linguistic strategy has being adopted successfully by the dominant classes for a long time. That is because this social class has enough knowledge to apply this tool to influence others. The dominated classes, on the other hand, in most of the cases, do not have conditions to perceive that they are influenced by discourse. As a consequence, these individuals work in order to fulfill the wishes of their dominators and do not realize that they are being explored. On the book Animal Farm (1945) written by George Orwell, the use of discourse is a tool that is constantly adopted in order to increase the social distance between those that on the one hand are in the control and on the other those who are the working force. As a result, social stratification enhances and the ideal of equality becomes a distant dream that might never come true, as an utopia.

Animal farm portrays the consequences that the use of absolute power can cause on a whole society. That is because when this happens, only a small part of society is benefited while the biggest part of it suffers with this system. This absolute power is built and increased by the use of discourse. Michel Foucault defines discourse as a

group of statements which provide a language for talking about – a way of representing the knowledge about – a particular topic at a particular historical moment. …Discourse is about the production of knowledge through language. But… since all social practices entail meaning, and meanings shape and influence what we do – our conduct – all practices have a discursive aspect. (cited by Hall, 1997:44)

In this fashion, as Stuart Hall (1997) points out, it is important to remember that Foucault offers a very different definition of discourse than that ordinarily used by linguists, in the sense that Foucault’s definition is as much about ways of thinking and practices as it is about language. Indeed, according to Foucault, meaning and, thus, meaningful action are only made meaningful within the constitutive abstract space of a discourse (44).

Based on this concept of discourse, we can say that on the narrative Animal Farm, this powerful tool is a device that only the pigs have the ability to use. Because of that they can be considered an analogy of the dominant classes that retain power and knowledge to use it. This understanding of the world allows them to use discourse in order to shape the other animals according to their desires. As a consequence, the pigs are able to take advantage of the “lower-classes” animals. That is possible because by the use of discourse they are capable to make all the other animals believe in their words and do what they wished to achieve. As a result of this initially trust produced by discourse practices, the other animals did what they were told to do without realizing they were explored and that they were not having any benefits with it.

In order to contextualize this essay, it is important to provide a brief description of the narrative Animal farm concerning the plot. The story happens in somewhere in London at a farm that belonged to Mr. Jones and his family. One night the animals go to a meeting that Major, an old pig, had organized. During this meeting, Major explains that due to his wisdom and long lifetime he had get to the conclusion that “No animal in England is free” and “The life of an animal is misery and slavery (7). The reason of this animal condition was attributed to the tyranny of the human beings. Three days after this meeting Major died, but he had already planted a seed in the animal’s souls. Influenced by Major’s speech, they started to prepare themselves for the Rebellion in order to get rid of men. They were guided by the pigs, “who were recognized of being the cleverest of the animals” (15). Three pigs, Napoleon, Snowball and Squealer, had elaborated Major “teachings into a complete system of thought, which they give the name of Animalism” (16). The animals had frequent meetings with the pigs in order to learn these principles. One day, all the animals in union expelled Mr. Jones from his farm. From that day on, they were not ruled by men anymore. After this event, the pigs started to use their superior intellectual capacity to dictate the rules in that society. The other animals, as a consequence, did everything their superiors asked aiming at having a better life. However, their lives became worst than ever and most of them were not able to realize that negative change. The work increased and only the pigs benefited with this new situation.

Such environment was influenced by an initial speech that encouraged the animals to change their reality. In this sense, we can perceive that the use of discourse has started to persuade a whole society in a way that made its members feel the necessity to chance their lives. The power of discourse is clear, as this wish of changing was inexistent until the moment that the animals listened to old Major’s speech that “had given the more intelligent animals a completely new outlook on life” (15). Due to Old Major words the animals felt that they were a unit and had a common goal to achieve that was, expelling men from their lives:

Never listen when they tell you that Man and the animals have a common interest, that the prosperity of the one is the prosperity of the others. It is all lies. Man serves the interest of no creature except himself. And among us animals let there be perfect unit, perfect comradeship in the struggle. All men are enemies. All animals are comrades […] weak or strong, clever or simple, we are all brothers. […] All animals are equal. (10/11)

Influenced by the new ideas that were presented to them, they started to prepare themselves emotionally to the rebellion that would occur one day. However, it happened sooner then they expected: Mr. Jones was expelled from the farm and they were free of men. Due to this new reality they could start to live filled with the sureness that they were part of an equal society.

However, the animals were not able to perceive that they are not on the same level of the pigs because the discourse is used to disguise this situation. The pigs are able to occupy this superior position due to their finer intelligence in relation to the other animals. Their intelligence allowed them to influence the other animals and get the things they wished by the use of discourse. In order to gain the animals confidence, the pigs made them believe that they all belonged to the same group. The creation of the seven Commandments, which had in common the idea that all animals were equal, reinforced the principle of old Major speech and it was a strategy to make the animals feel that they were a unit.

Taken by this feeling of belonging to a group, all the animals worked with pleasure because now they were not working to men, and believed that they were working for themselves. There was a feeling of contentment with the new life that that started to have:

Everybody worked according to his capacity. The hens and ducks, for instance, saved the bushels of corn at the harvest by gathering up the stray grains. Nobody stole, nobody gambled over his rations, the quarreling and biting and jealously which had been normal features of life in the old days had almost disappeared. (29)

As we can see the ideal of equally seems to work at the beginning of non-men around times. Nevertheless, this apparent balance among the classes does not last long. That is because the tasks gradually increase to the other animals that work harder and harder to satisfy the pig’s wishes. The other animals, in their turn, were not able to realize that the freedom that they have acquired from men did not mean that they were free. That is because the only thing that had changed in their lives was that instead of suffering the exploration of men (which was lighter), now they were under the exploration of the pigs. In other words, there were explored by those who made them believe that there would be equality in that society after men disappeared. Thus, this equality was an illusion because the pigs were in control.

Since the beginning of the times without men around, it is clear that the pigs are on the top of the social class. This superiority is seen by the fact that they “did not actually work, but directed and supervised the others” (27). As a consequence this superior condition, the ideal of equality among the animals is marked by social stratification since the beginning of its times. This fact can be perceived, through the constant increase of advantages that the pigs have in relation to the other animals. One example that shows traces of this social stratification can be seen when we learn that all the milk and apples were being reserved for the pigs. In order to contain any reaction that the other animals could have in relation to this fact, the pigs use their capacity of discourse to maintain their position of superiority. Through the use of speech, the pigs are able to convince the other animals that they need milk and apples for their health and if they fail in their duty Mr. Jones would come back. Persuaded by the reasons the pigs gave for having this advantage, “it was agreed without further arguments that the milk and the windfall apples (and also the main crop of apples when they ripened) should be reserved for the pigs alone” (36). This passage confirms the fact that the pigs have the capacity of using discourse in their favor and, as a consequence increase their advantages in that society as well as the distance between the higher and lower class. In relation to what the pigs say, we can highlight that their authority in that society give them the conditions to produce their own truth. In this sense Foucault notes that

Each society has its regime of truth, its ‘general politics’ of truth; that is, the types of discourse which it accepts and makes function as true, the mechanisms and instances which enable one to distinguish true and false statements, the means by which each is sanctioned… the status of those who are charged with saying what counts as true. (cited in Hall, 1997:49)

As a consequence of the power of the pigs, they can “choose” what is true and what is not according to their necessities and the other animals, having no other way out, accept their choices.

Influenced by this “truth” produced by the pigs, the other animals are incapable to interfere in their reality. An example of this incapacity can be seen when Napoleon, expels Snowball from the farm. After seeing Snowball running away from the dogs to save his life, several of the animals “would have protested if they could have found the right arguments” (54). As we can observe the animals do not know how to react to the things that they think are unfair. They feel impotent, they do not know how to express themselves due to the lack of cognitive capacity that they have.

Moreover, this lack of intelligence prevents them to make choices even when they are offered this opportunity. An instance of this reality can be seen when there is an election between Napoleon and Snowball. This event enables us to note the lack of discernment that the animals have in relation to the two candidates. As a consequence of this lack of discernment, they were not able to choose which one of them would be the best option to govern them. As the following passage shows:

The animals listened first to Napoleon, then to Snowball, and could not make up their minds which was right; indeed, they always found themselves in agreement with the one who was speaking at the moment. (51)

As we can see the other animals are easily influenced by the pigs. That is because they are not able to have their own opinions. In other words, they are just guided by the ones that have superior intelligence to command them.

Supported by the behavior of the other animals that did not react against the facts, Napoleon is able to take control of the situation. He announced that from now on the Sunday morning meetings would come to an end. They were unnecessary, he said, and wasted time. In future all questions related to the working of the farm would be settled by a special committee of pigs, presided over by himself. (54)

As we can observe the control exerted by power has assumed its full form. The power of Napoleon is reinforced by the presence of his dogs that are a threat for the other animals. The dogs represent a powerful protection to Napoleon in case anyone tries to break the rules he has established. As we can see the after this moment, the animals are officially regarded as the working force that does not interact with their superiors. As a consequence, this equal society that was idealized by all the animals is even further to become a reality. Actually, it has never existed. However, at least some time ago the pigs were wiling to make the animals believe that they lived in an equalitarian environment by using arguments to produce this effect of meaning. But now they knew that that “all animals are equal but some are more equal than others” (134).

This narrative emphasizes what has been happening in our society for centuries, that is, the social stratification that is intensified by discourse. This system is so rooted in the world that it seems that it will still last for a long time. It is true that these power relations have been slightly diminished throughout the years, but it is still very strong in our society nowadays. In this sense, Gelson Peres da Silva (2009) in his article in which he deals with power relations highlights “how little humankind has moved forward to a fairer society in which civil rights are equal to all citizens, and that is a long way to walk on” (74).


References

HALL, Stuart. Representation: Cultural representations and Signifying Practices. The open University/Sage Publications. London. 1997
SILVA, Gelson. Dogville by Lars Von Trier: human sexuality and power relations. Letra Viva. UFPB/DLEM – V.9, nº 1- 2009
ORWELL, George. Animal Farm. Orlando: Signet Classics. 1996

Societies in Western Culture countries are characterized by classes established through power relations. Some of those classes are formed by individuals who make use of power mechanisms in order to manipulate and control people. Their principal objective is to ascend to the power. According to Michael Foucault, this kind of relation is called pastorate, which refers to

the existence within society of a category of individuals absolutely specific and singular who do not define themselves by their status, nor absolutely by their profession, nor absolutely by their individual, intellectual or moral qualifications, but who in the Christian society play the role of pastor [pasteur], shepherd [berger] in relation to others who are their sheep or their flock. (121)

This pastoral power is characterized by the fact that it is exercised over a flock of people and it aims at the salvation of it. In other words, the pastoral power is seen as a beneficent power since the shepherd must care for every member of the flock. Besides, Foucault states that this kind of power relation was introduced by Christianity and generated a new set of mechanisms of control which has been used especially by ruling classes (122). In this sense, as a representation of reality, some literary works show the way that this process is established and what its consequences in society are. The fable Animal Farm by George Orwell, for instance, can be considered an example of the manifestation of pastoral power. That is because it is possible to perceive the development of a process in which a group of pigs assumes the role of shepherd in a society idealized and governed by animals.

Animal Farm initially exposes a class of animals that is oppressed by Mr. Jones, the owner of the Manor Farm. However, Old Major, that is denominated as “the prize Middle White boar” (02), has a dream and decides to communicate it to the other animals. He claims to the other animals that their lives are not good:

Now, comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength; and the very instant that our usefulness has come to an end we are slaughtered with hideous cruelty. No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. No animal in England is free. (03)

Old Major exposes how terrible is the life of the animals from Manor Farm. Thus, he encourages all animals to “work night and day, body and soul, for the overthrow of the human race” (04). As a shepherd that cares for the flock, Old Major wants to make the other animals aware of the fact that they have to fight against their miserable condition. Thus, we can assume that his speech produces “a completely new outlook on life” (06).

Nevertheless, Old Major dies and “the work of teaching and organizing the others fell naturally upon the pigs, who were generally recognized as being the cleverest of the animals” (06). In the group of pigs, Snowball, Napoleon and Squealer are the most prominent animals:

These three [Snowball, Napoleon and Squealer] had elaborated Old Major's teachings into a complete system of thought, to which they gave the name of Animalism. Several nights a week, after Mr. Jones was asleep, they held secret meetings in the barn and expounded the principles of Animalism to the others. (06)

As we can see, they use of Old Major’s speech in order to convince the other animals to struggle against Mr. Jones and take the locality where they live. This attitude allows Snowball and Napoleon to be seen as shepherds in the community of animals. That is because, in an apparent way, they lead the animals with the purpose of bringing benefits to the whole group. In this manner, we can take for granted that Old Major’s persuasive speech is a powerful instrument used by the pigs due to the fact that it allowed them to exercise the pastoral power. Thus, they stimulate the other animals to perceive their real condition and “flung themselves upon their tormentors” (07). To this effect, Foucault states that the pastoral power

is opposed to a customary, traditional political power, in that it does not essentially extend over a territory: the shepherd does not rule over a territory, he rules over a multiplicity of individuals, he reigns over sheep, cows, animals. […] Its principle function is not so much the assurance of a victory, since it does not extend over a territory. (122)

For that reason, we can assume that the pigs make use of the pastoral power in order to “rule over” (22) the community of animals from Manor Farm. Thus, after the expulsion of Mr. Jones, the pigs become free to start using their superior intelligence in order to ascend to the power.

In order to continue their plan, the pigs take the necessary steps to maintain their status quo and convince the animals to work in favor of the group. Therefore, was can say that one of the most important accomplishments reached by them is the organization of the “seven commandments” (09), which are based on the principles of equality idealized by Old Major. In this sense, we can consider the set of rules established by the pigs as a type of ideological and religious mechanism which is used to create a false idea of equality among the animals. Thus, the seven commandments represent “an unalterable law by which all the animals on Animal Farm must live for ever after” (09). In relation to them, we can observe at least two important aspects. Firstly, these rules restate the idea that the pigs are the intellectual class in the society comparing to the labouring class, which is formed by the other animals. Secondly, they reiterate the role of the pigs as the shepherd that guides the sheep to the salvation by helping them find good meadows, as we can see:

1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy / 2. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend / 3. No animal shall wear clothes / 4. No animal shall sleep in a bed / 5. No animal shall drink alcohol / 6. No animal shall kill any other animal / 7. All animals are equal (9).

By observing these commandments, we can assume that the pigs write them in accordance with the animals’ needs. As it is possible to observe, the commandments 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are related to the idea of difference (human beings vs animals) which is the opposite of the idea of equality. Besides, 6 and 7 are rules based on the idea of equality (among all animals). This quick and persuasive speech enables the pigs to govern and supervise the groups of animals since they do not question anything. As a consequence, the pigs – “with their superior knowledge” (10) –, gradually constitute a new tyrannical system in which they are oppressors instead of the oppressed class.

To this effect, we can say that the use of the persuasive speech is responsible for the stratification of the other animals. That is because it is possible to perceive the beginning of two processes that are connected to each other after the expulsion of Mr. Jones. These processes correspond to the consolidation of the pigs as an eminent group and the complete alienation of the other animals. This fact is related to the difference that the pigs establish in their relationship with the other animals. They conduct the apathy and ignorance of the animals in order to create two different classes in the community of animals: the ruling class and the working class, i.e., one formed by shepherds and another constituted by sheep. As a result, the “brainworkers” (13) – as the pigs denominated themselves –, create a new social hierarchy. In this new structure, all the animals are induced to accept certain beliefs and facts without questioning them, as it is possible to notice in the excerpt below:

The mystery of where the milk went to was soon cleared up. It was mixed every day into the pigs' mash. The early apples were now ripening, and the grass of the orchard was littered with windfalls. The animals had assumed as a matter of course that these would be shared out equally; one day, however, the order went forth that all the windfalls were to be collected and brought to the harness-room for the use of the pigs. At this some of the other animals murmured, but it was no use. All the pigs were in full agreement on this point, even Snowball and Napoleon. (12)

As we can see, the pigs can increase their advantages by manipulating the facts through the use of speech and due to the fact that they belong to the ruling class. It happens because the other animals are always prone to follow what the pigs tell them as they are seen as shepherds.

After the passage above shown, Squealer – the pig who spreads the propaganda of Napoleon among the other animals –, is called to “make the necessary explanations to the others” (12). He uses his convincing speech to justify to the other animals the fact that the pigs keep all the milk and apples for themselves instead of dividing them among all the animals:

Our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our health. […] The whole management and organization of this farm depend on us. Day and night we are watching over your welfare. It is for your sake that we drink that milk and eat those apples. Do you know what would happen if we pigs failed in our duty? Jones would come back! Yes, Jones would come back! Surely, comrades,’ cried Squealer almost pleadingly, skipping from side to side and whisking his tail, ‘surely there is no one among you who wants to see Jones come back? (13)

Squealer’ speech shows us how those in power frequently make use of rhetoric and language to twist the reality with the purpose of keeping their power. For that reason, Squealer convinces the other animal to accept it since the community of animals, as a flock of sheep, depends on the shepherds.

As a result, we can say that the truth is constantly avoided by the pigs since their government is supported by lies and illusions. In this false reality, the other animals become incapable to oppose to the pigs. That is because they can not struggle against their shepherds in order to remain alive. This condition is the result of the persuasive language used by the pigs, which allows them to be seen as a privileged group among the animals. Therefore, we can say that the other animals submit themselves to the hard work without questioning anything:

All that year the animals worked like slaves. But they were happy in their work; they grudged no effort or sacrifice, well aware that everything that they did was for the benefit of themselves and those of their kind who would come after them, and not for a pack of idle, thieving human beings. (21)

As we can observe, this passage shows how is possible to create an illusion and take advantage of it. In Animal Farm, it happens because most of the animals does not have enough knowledge to perceive their reality. For that reason, they are guided to believe that they are a group of animals that needs to be governed by a shepherd.

Finally, the manipulation of memory is another mechanism used by the pigs in order to maintain their superior condition. An example of this method can be seen when some animals are killed by Napoleon’s dogs after questioning some acts committed by the pigs: “when the terror caused by the executions had died down, some of the animals remembered, or thought they remembered, that the Sixth Commandment decreed ‘No animal shall kill any other animal’” (32). Some animals initially feel that “the killings which had taken place did not square with this” (32). Nevertheless, a female horse, who suspected that the pigs had violated their prohibitions, asked to a goat to read the Sixth Commandment again:

Muriel read the Commandment for her. It ran: ‘No animal shall kill any other animal without cause.’ Somehow or other, the last two words had slipped out of the animals' memory. But they saw now that the Commandment had not been violated; for clearly there was good reason for killing the traitors who had leagued themselves with Snowball. (32)

As this passage indicates, the pigs make use of the speech to reconstitute the collective memory and modify the Seven Commandments. Therefore, we can assume that speech is used not only to establish, but also to sustain the new official ideology introduced by the pigs on the farm.

Another example of this practice is the adaptation of the last commandment. In the beginning, it was written that “all animals are equal” (09). However, the pigs needed to justify the fact that “neither pigs nor dogs produced any food by their own labour” (45) while the other animals “worked like slaves” (41). Therefore, they modify this commandment to “ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL, BUT SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE EQUAL THAN OTHERS” (47). As we can see, although there is a latent distinction between pigs and the other animals, the idea of equality is still present in this commandment. That is, all animals are still equal, but the pigs induce the other animals to believe that some animals more equal than others.

Animal Farm is a fable in which we can see the use of the pastoral power as a current practice in society. In this sense, Foucault states that “through the organization of the pastorate in the Christian society […] it was developed an instrument of power extremely important for the whole history of the Christian Western” (67). In Orwell’s story, it is possible to say that the pastoral power is hidden behind the idea of the revolution, which is used to permit the pigs to ascend to the power. That is because the pigs make use of techniques and procedures that, as Foucault notes, produce an obedience that leads to a state of obedience (69). Thus, as shepherds, the pigs can impose their needs to the other animals. As a conclusion, we can take for granted that the revolution became “a dim tradition, passed on by word of mouth,” (44) that had never brought benefits to any animal — excluding the pigs, which can be seen as representatives of the pastoral power.


References:


Foucault, Michael. Ética, Sexualidade, Política. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária, 2004.
Orwell, George. Animal Farm. New York: Signet Classics, 1996.